Ap Psychology Barron's Chapter 7: Cognition Flashcards
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Three-box model (information-processing model)
Sensory memory processes external events. Then short-term (working) memory encodes some of that information. Last, long-term memory encodes some of that.
Levels of processing model
how deeply the memory is processed predicts how well we remember it; deeply (elaborately) processed or shallowly (maintenance) processed
Sensory memory (iconic memory)
a split-second holding tank for ALL incoming sensory information; all the information your senses are processing right now. (1. large capacity, 2. contains sensory info, 3. brief retention of images)
iconic memory
a split-second perfect photograph of a scene
selective attention
Determines which sensory messages get encoded; we encode what we are attending to or what is important to us
echoic memory
Perfect brief (3-4 second) memory for sounds
short term memory (working memory)
memories we are currently working with and are aware of (visual images, sounds, a sense of meaning); everything you are thinking at the current moment; temporary; holds around 7 items
Chunking
To remember a list of items, you can organize the items into familiar, manageable units; most mnemonic devices are examples of this
mnemonic devices
memory aids, examples of chunking; e.g. use "My very educated mother just served us nachos" to remember the planet names
Rehearsal
retain information in short-term memory by repeating it; e.g. you look up a telephone number and repeat it to yourself on the way to the phone
long-term memory
Our permanent storage; it's capacity is unlimited
episodic memory
Memories of specific events, stored in a sequential series of events; e.g. remembering the last time you went to see a movie. Hippocampus
semantic memory
general knowledge of the world, stored in facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially; e.g. the difference between effect and affect. Hippocampus
procedural memory
memories of skills and how to perform them; sequential but might be very complicated to describe in words; e.g. how to throw a curve ball or ride a bike. Cerebellum
Explicit memories (declarative memories)
processed in the hippocampus; What we usually think of first; the conscious memories of facts or events we actively tried to remember.
Implicit memories (nondeclarative memories)
unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have; e.g. you remember how to scrub a floor properly after watching your parents do it. Cerebellum
Eidetic memory (photographic memory)
Occurs very rarely; use powerful and enduring visual images; e.g. repeat a list of 70 letters or digits and can recall it 15 years later
recognition
"recognize";The process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory; e.g. Have I smelled this before?, multiple choice
Recall
retrieving details or memory with an external cue; e.g. What does my Aunt Beki's perfume smell like?, fill-in-the blank
primary effect
predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list
recency effect
our ability to recall the items at the end of a list
serial position effect (serial position curve)
recall of a list is affected by the order of items in a list
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
temporary inability to remember information
semantic network theory
Our brain forms new memories by connecting their meaning and context with hundreds or thousands of meanings already in memory. Encoding of meaning.
flashbulb memories
the importance of the event caused us to encode the context surrounding the event; e.g. Where were you during the September 11 terrorist attack?
state-dependent memory
recalling events encoded while in a particular state of consciousness; e.g. you remember when falling sleep then don't remember until falling sleep again
Mood congruent memory
remembering when our mood matches the mood we were in when the event happened; e.g. likely to recall happy events when happy
constructed memory (reconstructed memory)
Report false details of a real event or recollect an event that never occurred; the memories feel like accurate memories to the person recalling them
relearning effect
memories that decay do not seem to disappear completely; if you have to memorize something again, it will take you less time than it did at first
retroactive interference
learning new information interferes with the recall of older information; you have a hard time remembering older information (new info blocks out old)
proactive interference
previously learned information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently; you have a hard time remembering newer information (old info blocks new info)
anterograde amnesia
People with damage to the hippocampus might have this; cannot encode new memories; can learn new skills but will not remember learning them
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past
long-term potentiation
through repeated firings, receiving neurons becomes more sensitive to messages from sending neurons which strengthen their connection; related to long-term memory
Phonemes
The smallest units of sound used in a language; English speakers use 44; e.g. the Spanish rolled R
Morphemes
The smallest unit of meaningful sound; short words (a, but) or parts of words like prefixes (an, pre)
Syntax
The grammar of a language; the order in which words are placed (e.g. where the verb is placed)
Language acquisition
process of learning language; babbling to holophrastic (1 word) to telegraphic (2 words); through conditioning and inborn propensity to learn language
Overgeneralization (overregularization)
misapplication of grammar rules; e.g. if -ed signifies past tense then saying "hitted" and "throwed"
language acquisition device
the ability to learn a language rapidly as children (aka the nativist theory of language acquisition); theorized by Noam Chomsky
linguistic relativity hypothesis
The language we use might control, and in some ways limit, our thinking
Prototypes
what we think is the most typical example of a particular concept
Images
mental pictures created in our minds of the outside world; visual (imagining your cat), auditory, tactile, olfactory, or taste (hot chocolate on a cold day)
Algorithm
guarantees the right solution by using a formula or other foolproof method; can be impractical; e.g. type every combo of letters to find a password
Heuristic
rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently (can lead to overconfidence); e.g. find a password by guessing words before numbers
representativeness heuristic
judging a situation based on prototypes held in our minds (like stereotypes); e.g. incorrectly think teen more likely to commit suicide because of depressed teen image
Belief bias (belief perseverance)
tendency not to change our beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence; make illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs
functional fixedness
The inability to see a new use for an object; e.g. thinking of a car jack only as a tool to help with a flat tire, not getting a car out of the mud
confirmation bias
we tend to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true and may miss the correct solution
convergent thinking
thinking pointed toward one solution
Divergent thinking
thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question; more closely associated with creativity
availability heuristic
judge situations based on similar situations that initially come to mind from personal experiences; your block is more dangerous since you're familiar with crime there
George Sperling
(1934-Present) had participants recall rows of letters they had seen for 1/20th of a second; he called this split-second photographic memory iconic memory
George Miller
(1920-2012) performed a series of experiments, "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two," showing we remember about 7 items in short-term memory
Alexander Luria
(1902-1977) studied a patient with eidetic memory who could repeat a list of 70 letters or digits and remember it up to 15 years later
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909) established that the order of items in a list is related to whether or not we recall them; we more easily remember items at the beginning and end of lists
Noam Chomsky
(1928-present) theorized that humans are born with a language acquisition device which allows children to rapidly learn language
Elizabeth Loftus
(1944-present) Showed that many "repressed" memories that are suddenly remembered may be constructed or false recollection of events
Benjamin Whorf
(1897-1941) theorized that the language shapes the way we think and determines what we think about; linguistic relativity hypothesis
Wolfgang Kohler
(1887-1967) documented details of the "aha experience" by observing a group of chimpanzees as they generated original solutions to retrieve out of reach bananas
Encoding
the processing of breaking the information down into the memory system into a form we understandâfor example, by extracting meaning.
storage
the retention of encoded information over time: keeping memories
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
Conditioned Memories
processed in the cerebellum; Memories that are triggered based on a conditioned stimulus
Sensory memory
Split-Second holding tank for all incoming sensory info. (Large capacity, brief retention of images)
Short term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten (visual, acoustic, semantic codes)
Long term memory
the relatively permanent storage of information; unlimited
Explicit memories
are memories of facts, including names, images and events. They are also called declarative memories. Hippocampus
implicit memory
Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously. cerebellum
next-in-line effect
we focus on our own performance and often fail to process the last person's words
Visual encoding
encoding of images and sensory info
acoustic encoding
the use of auditory stimuli or hearing to implant memories
Misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Conditioned Memories
how to behave, act, or respond to a given stimuli through conditioning that occurs without your explicit knowledge
Long term potentation
a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength between two neurons. Hippocampus. Biological or physiological basis for learning
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Concepts
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
trial and error
Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Overconfidence
Tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions
belief perseverance
tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them
Insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
Fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving
mental set (rigidity)
the tendency to fall into established thought patterns. an impediment to problem solving
Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. an impediment to problem solving
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
Grammar
set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language
Semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats. Baby may imitate parents (LEARN LANGUAGE)
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Noam Chomsky Nativist Theory (language acquisition device)
There must be an inborn "universal language acquisition device". We learn language too quickly for it to be learned through reinforcement and punishment.
Whorf's linguistic determinism hypothesis (linguistic relativity)
Idea that language determines the way that we think
Kohler's chimpanzees
generated original problem solving techniques