Criminology Flashcards

Individual Level Theories

Theories that imply that crime is caused by an individuals circumstances.

Structural Level Theories

Theories that imply that people are passive,that social structure is imposed on them and that economic and social disenfranchisement are often fundamental causes of crime.

Classical School

Founded by Cesare Beccaria. Believes that people have free will, are rational beings, and are hedonistic. It believes that laws should treat everyone equally and should follow due process.

Founded by Cesare LombrosoBelieves that criminality can be explained by using science. Criminals are born, not made and one could tell if an individual will become a criminal from birth. Criminality can be inherited. The State has the right to use this belief to control society.

Routine Activities Theory

Founded by Lawrence Cohen and FelsonCrime is likely to occur when these 3 elements are present: - Likely Offender - Suitable Target - Absence of a Capable GuardianIt is through _________ that offenders come into contact with suitable victims and targets

Does not explain why people commit crime but why people do not commit crime.4 Social bonds promote socialization and conformity: - Attachment (to Parents, School, Peers) - Commitment - Involvement - Belief

Differential Association (Sutherland)

Explains how people learn to commit crime.Believes that criminal behavior is learned by individuals from other persons that are in an intimate personal group.

Incorporated behavioral and cognitive theories to Sutherland's Differential Association.

Subculture of Violence

WolfgangSubcultures with values that demand the overt use of violence in certain social situations.

Anomie (Durkheim)

Rapid changed causes normlessness, confusion about right and wrong.Transition from Mechanical Society to a Organic Society.

Society expands in concentric zones from the center.5 Concentric Zones: - Central Business District - Transitional Zone - Working Class Zone - Residential Zone - Commuter Zone

Investigates the relationship between crime rates and the 5 different concentric zones.Found that delinquency persisted in the same areas over an extended period of time even though ethnic composition in the area changed. Which means that crime rates are not explained by ethnicity but rather the position of the groups in terms of economic status and cultural values

Tested Shaw and Mckays idea about Social Disorganization. Showed that it was in fact true

Sampson and Groves

Family disruption decreases social control

General Theory of Crime:Self-Control (Hirschi and Gottfredson)

Explains the tendency to commit all crimes. When the need for momentary pleasure and immediate gratification outweighs long-term interest, crime occurs. Crime is a function of poor self-control.

Interactional Theory (Thornberry)

The theory is a combination of the Social Control Theory and the Social Learning Theory in that it emphasizes a weak societal bond and learning that encourages deviant behavior.

Life Course Theory (Sampson and Laub)

Positive and negative changes affect individuals involvement in criminal behavior.

Astrology

The pseudoscientific believe that astrological signs such as configurations of the planet or stars influence human behavior.

Atavism

The belief that criminals represent genetic "throwbacks to the ape" or earlier, more primitive humanity.

Behavioral modification

The use of a system of rewards and punishments in order to modify or engineer behavior.

Biological positivism

Theories that propose that crime is caused by inherited genetic or other biological causes.

Cheater theory

Theory that holds that males have a greater interest in meeting and little interest in child rearing and use illegitimate means to maximize their offspring.

Durham decision

Asserted that individuals are not guilty if their acts are the product of mental disease or defect.

Feeblemindedness

The belief by Goring that criminals were mentally defective.

Law of criminal saturation

Ferris theory that crime expands to fit the amount of law enforcement machinery.

Lobotomy

The surgical removal of the frontal lobes of the brain.

M'Naghten Rule

Not guilty by reason of insanity. (NGRI)

Monozygotic concordance

Similar behavior in identical twins.

Nature versus. Nature controversy

An attempt to examine whether crime is inherited by nature or learned by nature.

NGRI defense ( Not guilty by reason of insanity)

The earliest insanity ruling, sometimes called the right / wrong test.

Palmistry

A pseudoscience that claims to be able to read personality characteristics on the basis of lines on the palm of the hand.

Phrenology

The pseudoscience that claims to determine personality and intelligence on the basis of size and shape of a person's skull.

Physical stigmata

Lombroso's theory that criminals could be denoted on the basis of their facial appearance.

Physiognomy

A pseudoscience that measures facial and other body characteristics and their relationship to personality.

Positivism

A scientific or quantitative approach to criminology that searches for pathology, uses the scientific method, and suggest therapy.

Psychological positivism

A group of theoretical approaches that look to the personality as the cause of criminal activity.

psychometry

Attempt to measure personality.

Psychopath / sociopath / antisocial personality

A personality disorder in which, due to inadequate childhood socialization, an individual never developed a full range of adult personality.

The belief that there is a survival of the fittest in society.

So mato Somatotypes

Body types as described by Sheldon endomorph, mesomorph, and ectomorph.

XYY syndrome

The theory that males who possess an extra Y chromosome are more prone to violence.

Findings from twin studies contend that there is a biological link to crime.

True

The M'Naghten rule states that the defendant

Did not know what he or she was doing was wrong.

Proponents of Freud's theory suggests crime is attributable to?

Unconscious motivation

Psychometry is the field that seeks to?

Measure psychological / mental differences between criminals and non - criminals.

Research in behavioral genetics found support for a crime gene.

False

The XYY syndrome has been used to explain which kind of crime?

Homicide

Which ideas suggest that the shape of a person school will determine if he or she will engage in crime?

Phrenology

This theory claims that some males have been a preselected to make lower parental investment than women by speaking numerous partners.

Cheater theory

The Durham test states that the defendant?

Act was caused by his or her mental illness.

What is one of the key weaknesses of early biological positivism?

Weak methodology / operationalization.

There is no difference between biological positivism and psycho logical positivism.

False

William Sheldon's work was instrumental in attributing physical types to various forms of criminality. What was the name he gave for his research on physical types?

Somatotypes

True

In his study of juice, Robert Dugdale found?

Criminality is inherited.

Atavism is a combination of work of Darwin and Lombroso.

True

Criminology

the study of crime, criminals and criminal behavior

Criminologist

study the nature and extent of crime,patterns and explanations of criminal behavior

Mens Rea

guilty mind

Felonies

More than a year and a day in prison

Misdemeanors

Up to a year in a house of correction

Mala Prohibita

crimes because the law says so

Mala in Se

acts that are criminal, wrong, immoral or evil in themselves (street crimes)

Criminal law

Proof beyond a reasonable doubt

UCR

Major source of crime data produced by agencies of Part 1 crimes and compiled by the FBI

dark figure of crime

Undiscovered, unreported and unrecorded crimes

NCVS

Bureau of the census for the Bureau of Justice Statistics, estimates the total number of crimes committed in the U.S. using data survey from sample of housing units

NIBRS

Incident based system where crime data is collected on each crime occurrence

Self Report surveys

Ask people to report their own criminal activities

Culpable states of mind

Knowingly, Purposely, Recklessly, Negligently

Cesare Lombroso

Biological characteristics, atavistic traits

Cesare Beccaria

Citizens and states have a "social contract" and pleasure, pain and punishment prevent others from committing crime

Rational choice theory

Criminals rationally choose both the crime and the target

Deterrence theory

Individuals choice is influenced by the fear of punishment

General Deterrence

Punishing criminals will deter potential criminals as they realize the punishment outweighs any potential gains

Specific Deterrence

Instilling fear of punishment into individuals actually helps to deter crime

Personality

Attitudes, beliefs, habits and behaviors with other characteristics that develop an individual through social interaction with others

Neurotic

A person less seriously ill

Psychotic

Seriously mentally ill

Superego

Social conscience learned during childhood

Concentric zone model

crime rates and various community zones

Standards and rules of acceptable behavior

Laws

Codified rules or norms of a society

Chauvanistic theory

Females are viewed differently under the law

Rape

Unlawful forcible sex with a male/female against their will

Assault

Physically striking or touching a victim

Robbery

the taking or attempting to take with force or the threat of force or violence the property of another, or placing them in fear

Murder

The unlawful killing of a human being

Serial Murder

killing of several persons over time

Mass Murder

killing of several people in one event

Theft

the unlawful taking of property of another

Motor vehicle theft

the theft of a motor vehicle

Carjacking

A perpetrator forces a driver from their vehicle and steals it

Shoplifting

stealing or theft of goods from a business

Identity theft

Theft of a persons identity for the purpose of stealing property

Fraud

Acquiring anothers property through deception or cheating

Burglary

unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft

Fencing

A way of disposing of stolen goods through another person

Arson

Illegal burning of property

Embezzlement

taking or converting anothers money or property with which they've been entrusted

Inchoate crimes

Attempts,criminal solicitation and conspiracy

Phishing

Emails sent looking for information that look real and require a response, to steal personal or banking information

Bait and switch

Advertising a product for sale at a certain price and changing either the price or make up of the product for sale

Pyramid scheme

A system used to gain trust and profits believed to be legal, where others lose money

Depressants

decrease or depress the central nervous system

Stimulants

psychoactive substances that increase the functioning of the central nervous system

Hallucinogens

psychoactive substances that cause mild to intense distortions of visual or auditory functions

Marijuana

the most widely used mind altering drug

Sir Robert Peel

The father of policing

Bobbies

A British police officer nicknamed after Peel

August Volmer

The father of police reform

LEAA

supplied funding for training, education and equipment for police department

Federal law enforcement

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms amongst many others

U.S. Marshalls Service

The oldest Federal law enforcement agency

Secret Service

Counterfeit money investigations along with Executive protection and a Uniformed division

Department of Homeland Security

A Federal umbrella agency under direct control of the executive branch that oversees all federal enforcement agencies

Discretion

The ability to make a decision based on judgement or personal conscience

Diversion

The development of alternatives to the formal criminal justice system

Probation

The most widely used sentence that allows a person to stay within the community while complying with court imposed conditions

Restitution

The court ordered repayment of money to victims

Rehabilitation

The process of attending classes to change one illegal or improper habits

Retribution

An eye for an eye

Incapacitation

The removal of a person from society

Victimology

The study of victims and their patterns of victimization

PTSD

a psychiatric disorder that occurs after a person witnesses or experiences a life threatening event

Secondary Victimization

caused by insensitive questioning and by reporting inappropriate information about crime victims

Four definitional perspectives

Legal, Political, Sociological, Pyschological

Legalistic perspective

human conduct in violation of the criminal laws of a state, federal government, or a local jurisdiction that has power to make such law

Sociological perspective

an antisocial act of such a nature that its repression is necessary or supposed to be necessary to the preservation of the existing system of society Human relationships offenses first, violation of law second

Political perspective

built into the law by powerful groups and are then used to label selected undesirable forms of behavior as illegalLaws serve interest of the politically powerful

Psychological perspective

problem behavior, human activity that contravenes the criminal law and results in difficulties in living within a framework of generally acceptable social arrangementsharmful or potentially harmful behaviors

criminologist

one who studies crime, criminals, and criminal behavior

criminalist

specialist in the collection and examination of the physical evidence of crime

criminal justice

criminal law and study the components of the justice system

research findings may have broader importance than theory testingincludes government initiatives, programs, and plans intended to address problems in society

perspective holds that crime is a manifestation of underluyihn social problems (poverty, discrimination, inequality of opportunity)

holds tha people are fundamentally responsible for their own behavior and that they choose crime over other, more law-abiding courses of action

very crime has a unique set of causes, consequences, and participants, these reactions may contribute to the creation of a new social policy

primacy of sociology

contemporary criminology rests on a tradition of social scientific investigation in to the nature of crime and criminal behavior

evidence based criminology

-founded upon the experimental method-emphasizes randomized controlled experiments-evidence refers to scientific findings

Evolving science of criminology

-John Laubs three erasgolden age research, golden age of theory, empirical testing of dominant theories

theory building of criminological research

construction of theories or models that improve our understand of criminal behavior and help us create effective strategies to deal with the crime problem

research

the use of standardized, systematic procedures in the search for knowledge

stages in research

problem identification, development of a research design, choice of data collection techniques, review of findings

problem indentification

frequently involves testing a hypothesis, because those are measurable and can be tested

secondary anaylasis

evaluation fo existing data that was gathered for a different purpose

problems in data collection

intersubjectivity: independent observers must see the same thing under the same circumstancesReplicability: when the same symptoms exist the same results can be expected

Quantitative methods

techniques that produce measurable results that can be analyzed statistically

qualitative methods

produce subjective results, or results that are difficult to quantify

early sources of criminal law

code of hammurabi: one of the first known written laws and emphasized retribution roman law: twelve tables, these were a collection of basic rules relating family, religious, and economic lifeCommon law: a body of unwritten legal precedents created through everyday practice and supported by court decisions during the middle ages in England

Mala in se

acts are fundamentally inherent ally wrong regardless of time or place

mala prhibita

acts are said to be wrong because they are prohibited

Thomas Hobbs

fear of violent death forces humans in to the social contract

John Locke

life path depends on experiences

Jean-Jaques Rousseau

advanced the notion of the social contract

Thomas Paine

natural rights, rights retained in the face of govt. action & interest

crime

result of free will and punishment can be effective by negating the pleasure derived from it

the Classical School

Classical school principles

Rationality, hedonism, punishment, human rights, and due process

Classical school Principle: Rationality

humans have free will and choose their actions (rational choice)

Classical school principle: Hedonism

pleasure and pain, reward and punishment are the major determinates of choice

classical school principle: punishment

is a deterrent to crime, and deterrence is the best justification for punishment

classical school principle: human rights

society owes respect for the rights of citizens and their autonomy

Classical theory

concept of right and wrong and concepts of morality and propriety known as mores and folkways

Mores

rules covering potnetionally serious violations to the groups values (murder rape robbery etc )

Folkways

customs which have a force of tradition but whose violation is less likely to violate the survival of the social group (dress code, social manners)

Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)

-punishment should be swift-punishment should be just severe enough to outweigh the benefit of crime-purpose of punishment is deterrence not retribution-expressed a need for a process of trial jury

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

-to reduce crime, the pain of the crime commission must outweigh the pleasure to be derived from the activity.-people are rational and will weigh the pain of punishment against the pleasure to be gained from crime.-opposed to cruel punishment-believe in the swift and certain doctrine

age of enlightenment 17th and 18th century

Social Contract, natural law, natural lights

humans abandon their natural state of individual freedom to join together and form a society, surrendering some freedoms but forming a government which is obligated to assume certain responsibilities toward citizens and to provide for their protection and welfare

Natural law

certain laws are fundamental to human nature and can be determined through reason

Natural Lights

rights that individuals retain in the face of the government action and interests

Neo Classical Criminology

classical criminology in 1800's gave way to approach knows as "positivism"

Positivism

a. positivism uses scientific method to study criminalityb. positivism is based on hard determinism, the belief that crime results from forces beyond ones control, and rejects the idea of free will.-1970s many assumptions of positivism were undermined and a resurgence of classical ideals led to the development of neoclassical criminology

Rational Choice theory

includes many of the theories of classical criminology, and based on the belief that criminals make conscious, rational and at least partially informed choices to commit crime

General deterrence

works by example and seeks to prevent others-punishment must be swift, certain, and severe if it is to be effective

specific deterrence

prevents an offender from re-offending (prison)

Major principles of biological theories

The brain is the organ of the mind and the locus of the personalityBasic determinants of human behavior are constitutionally or genetically basedObserved gender/racial differences in rates/types of criminality may be at least partially the result of biological differencesMuch human conduct is rooted in instinct (Territorial, adultery, acquisitiveness)Biological roots of human conduct have become increasingly disguisedSome behavior is the result of biological propensities inherited from more primitive developmental stagesThe interplay among heredity, biology, and the social environment must be considered

Biological roots of human agressions

Charles Darwin, and Konrad Lorenz

Charles Darwin

Interspecies aggression favors the strongest and best animals in the reproductive process

Konrad Lorenz

Human aggression serves other purposes but takes on covert forms (drive to acquire wealth and power)Human behavior is adapted instinctive behavior(instinctive response) pp 88

Two principles Positivist school was built on

Acceptance of social determinism (free will not determined by choice but by causative factors beyond the control of the person)Application of scientific techniques to the study of crime and criminology

observable, explainable, and measurable in quantitative terms

Cesare Lombroso

Developed concept of atavism, criminaloids, and also believed criminal behavior among women derived from atavistic foundations, while criminal women examined masculine features and mannerisms

Atavism

Criminality is the result of primitive urges that survived the evolutionary processAtavistic individuals are throwbacks to a more primitive biological state

Criminaloids

"occasional criminals," people enticed into crime by environmental influences

Hypoglycemia

early research linked murder to hypoglycemia - low blood sugar reduced the minds ability to reason affectivelyRecent research has linked excess sugar consumption to hyperactivity, aggressiveness, etc.Current evidence on sugar/behavior link unclearPET scans found lower glucose levels in prefrontal cortex of murderers

allergic reactions verse crime

Allergic reactions may cause brain swellingImpede higher faculties, reduce sense of moralityMay reduce learning during childhood, contribute to delinquency, adult crime

Food additives verse crime

Some food additives (MSG, dyes, artificial flavorings) may be linked to violenceCaffeine and sugar may trigger antisocial behaviorVitamins, other nutrients may have behavioral impact

why does Environmental pollution affect violent behavior?

Several studies have found a link between industrial and environmental pollution and violent behaviorCorrelation between juvenile crime and high environmental levels of lead and manganeseToxic pollutant may cause learning disabilities, an increase in aggressive behavior, loss of control over impulsive behaviorExposure to the color pink may have a calming effect on people experiencing anger and agitationPrenatal exposure to marijuana, tobacco, alcohol may lead to higher rates of conduct disorders, delinquency, psychiatric problems

Temperature is the only weather variable consistently related to crimeRelationship moderated by temporal factorsConsistent with routine activities theoryPossible link between barometric pressure and violent crime

Criminal Families in genetics

Criminal families::The Juke family - Richard L. Dugdale:The Kallikak family - Henry H. Goddard

Eugenic criminology

root causes of criminality were passed down in the form of bad geneseugenics movement: 1920'2-1930's-buck v. bell (1927)

The human genome project

International research project mapping the human genomeHGP may support concept of behavioral genetic determinismBelief that genes are major determining factor in human behaviorDominant view today holds that the interaction of genes and the behavioral possibilities they represent, with environmental features, produce meaningful human activityRecent research suggests the explanatory power of heritability limited by the fact that it may only apply to specific environments existing at the time of given study

Moffits biosocial theory

--Life course persisters (LCP): display constant patterns of misbehavior throughout life--Adolescence-limited offenders (AL): led into offending by structural disadvantages--Maturity gap - desire for autonomy (age 12) prevented by societal limitations. ("your to young for that" )Thus, childhood maltreatment is a "universal risk factor for anti social behavior

Policy Implications of Biological Theories

C. Ray Jeffrey's proposed biologically based crime prevention programPre- and post-natal careMonitoring children through developmentNeurological examinationsBiological research in prisons and treatment facilities

Psychopath

is the concept of the mental disease or diseased mindalso generally viewed as cruel and without thought or feeling for victims

Hervey CLeckley "mask of Sanity" characteristics of psychopathic personality

1. Superficial charm and good intelligence2. Absence of delusions, hallucinations, or other signs of psychosis3. Absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations4. Inability to feel guilt or shame5. Unreliability and chronic lying6. Ongoing anti social behavior7. Poor judgment and inability to learn from past experience8. Self-centered and incapacity to love9. An impersonal, trivial, and poorly integrated sex life10. Failure to follow a life plan

The APA has replaced psychopath and sociopath with the above term. A lack of love or the sensed inability to depend unconditionally on a central loving figure (usually the mother) are often suggested as major psychogenic factors contributing to the development of antisocial personality disorder

Sigmund Freud: id

the fundamental aspect of the personality from which drives urges and deires emanate, operates the pleasure principle, instant gratification

Ego

a. Emphasizes how ones objectives can best be accomplished, develops strategies that maximize pleasure and minimize pain.b. Functions on the reality principle and recognizes the need to delay gratification to achieve a long term goal.

Super ego

: the moral guide to right and wrong, the consciencea. Guides the ego to select strategies that are socially and ethically acceptableb. Guilt may result when the superegos dictates are not followed.The psychoanalytic perspective suggests that a poorly developed superego might result in criminal behavior.

Self control theory

Self-control involves a person's ability to alter his/her states and responses It is most obvious when the person acts contrary to his/her preferences and impulses

Four types of self control

-Impulse control-Control over the contents of the mind (suppression of unwanted thoughts)-Control over emotional and mood states-Control of performance

Self control deficiencies

Drug abuseSchool failureAlcoholismUnwanted pregnancyMoney managementPoor eating habits & obesityCigarette smokingDelinquency and criminality

Michael Gottfredson and Travis Herschi General Theory of crime

It suggests that low self-control accounts for all crime at all times and is the primary individual-level cause of crime (hence general)

Self control defined

defined as the degree to which a person is vulnerable to momentary temptations-Self control is acquired early in life-Low self control is the Premier individual level cause of crime Gottfredson and Herschi reject the idea that some people have a propensity to commit crime; they suggest, rather, that some people have a tendency to ignore the long-term consequences of their behavior

Who were the main influences for the classical school and what where their theories?

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832): Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794):

What were the basic ideas representing the classical school of thought?

Humans are free-willed and rational. Utilitarianism (greatest good for the greatest number) Civil rights and due process of law. Rules of evidence and testimony, determining sentencing and deterrence. Concerned with legal definition of crime rather than a concern with legal behavior. U.S. constitution reflects concerns of the classical movement.

What was not the perspective of the classical school?

Did not give rise to theories of criminal behavior.

What ideas of human nature represented by the classical school led the rational for the building of legal structures?

rationality, hedonism, and deterrence

What were Bentham's ideas of punishment?

punishment was a necessary evil. Its justification was deterrence.

What were the two types of deterrence and what were their purposes?

specific and general. Idea was to implement just enough pain to offset the amount of pleasure gained from the offense. General deterrence focused on potential offenders and setting examples.

What are the three components to deterrence? Which were most important?

celerity (speed), certainty, and severity. (Swift and certain) Too much severity and there may be public outcry and therefore make citizens unruly.

all individuals equal before law. Due process had to be followed, aboveboard, evidence had to be obtained from facts, equality had to be maintained. All punishments must be specific by law.

unfair treatment due to equal punishments. He knew the inequality would be less than the old system

Bentham, like Beccaria, argued against great judicial discretion, however...

Saw the need of some forms of decreased rationality among offenders. Punishments should not be added if not needed.

How did Bentham systemize legal procedures?

Separated crimes into private, public, against person and property, and violations of trust.

What was the felicific calculus?

schedule of punishments taking into account pleasure, pain, and mitigating circumstances.

Problems with classical school.

Hard to calculate the exact degree of punishment needed to offset pleasure. Lesser offenses punished more than serious offenses.

Bentham changed what with regard to prisons?

Those not yet convicted did not stay in jail, conditions were improved.

What was not acceptable for classical school?

Capital punishment - led to subversion of law

Impact of classical school?

French and American revolutions, embraced equality of people, right to life and liberty, fairness in administration of justice, restriction of actions of the state. Not until sentencing stage is there a movement away from classical school of thought in contemporary criminal justice system.

Rebirth of deterrence

the public in moving towards a more conservative mode, clamored for harsher sentences. Tougher sentences will deter crime. Deterrence is hard to measure. Pubic believes deterrence is alive and well. Social learning theory is a cousin to deterrence.

Positivist school leaders

lombroso (teacher) , Ferri (student)

Lombroso's theories and ideas

He pointed out that criminals have subhuman, physical features. Criminals manifest traits of sensory impairment, lack of moral sense (lack of remorse), the use of slang and tattoos. Biology causes crime.

Types of criminals (Lombroso)

insane criminals, epilectic, occasional,

Types of criminals (Ferri)

born, criminals of passion, and the habitual criminal.

Criminal causality according to Ferri

crime was caused by factors such as physical (race, geographic, temperature, and climate), anthropological (age, organic, sex, and psychological), and social factors such as customs, religion, economics, and population density.

Means of study (ferri)

positive observation, criminal statistics, and penal law in a synthetic science that he called "criminal sociology".

Means of study (lombroso)

Extensive Data collection/tests. Similar to Criminal anthropology. "Aimed at irrefutably demonstrating the hypotheses that he championed, without exercising the methodological caution that was already beginning to characterize scientificresearch in his day" relied on anecdotal evidence rather than sound evidenceLombroso wrote newspaper articles that read like essays for scientificjournals, and scientific papers that read like newspaper articles

Law of criminal saturation (Ferri)

Ferri believed that within a social environment with generally fixed conditions only a certain amount of crime can be realized.

Absurdities of Lombroso

"prostitution can be checked for giving youth sound ideas of sexual physiology"Criminals are inherently evil and are relative to the most savage rodents and beasts. Inconsistency with theories. (facial features)

Lombroso's foresight

The availability of new neuroimaging technologies hasprompted several researchers to seek connections between alterationsin the form or functioning of the brain and antisocial behavior. cortical processes that appeared to predispose murderers to homicidalbehavior.strong consensus on the connection between dysfunctional parts ofthe frontal and temporal lobes of the brain and violent antisocialbehavior. Genetics play a role in criminals.Minor Physical abnormalities have been recently studied.criminals are less reactive and less susceptible to pain than noncriminals,and consequently that the criminal, like primitive man, isless sensitiveThere are no aggressive adolescentswho were not aggressive children first, while many aggressivechildren subsequently learn to control their aggressiveness

Symbolic Interactionism (Chicago)

Human behavior is the product of purely social symbols communicated between individuals. The mind is not innate. Expectations, generalization. Own self concept based on what we think others think about us. Misreading of situational guidelines can lead to deviance.

Chicago School Principles

1) No Absolutes governing human behavior2) Affect of social setting and situational values on crime (offsets positive school)

why the transitional zone and the inner-city were a cause of concern

It was an undesirable place to live because t was cheap and deteriorating. Many immigrants chose to live there bc of price and close to their work. It was an area were crime and illness was rampant. More socially disorganized than other areas. Encroachment of the business and factory business district also played a role.

1.) Central Business 2.) Transitional Zone3.) Blue collar residential4.) Middle Income residential5.) Commuter residentialCity is like a body with diffferent organs. Dominance, invasion, and succession. Dominant uses of land within the circle. When uses characteristic of the inner zone encroach on areas in the outer zone, those areas become less desirable. Eventually replacement of those zones occurs.

based on conception of primary relationships similar to those found in a village. Loyalty leads to social stability. Proper family values. 4 Elements of social disorganization:1.) low economic status2.) mix of ethnic groups3.) highly mobile residents moving in and out of area. 4.) disrupted families and broken homes In the inner cities, life is fast, relationships are weak, and life is superficial. Loss of primary social relationships led to social disorganization explaining the emergence of crime. Immigrants who lived in inner circles struggled with the difficulty of maintaining relationships and the difficulty of succeeding in a class bound society led to immigrants retreating to the safety of their own cultures. It is a dual problem of social disorganization and culture clash. Cultural transmission theory explains that juveniles affected by social disorganization are more likely to be exposed to those who espouse delinquent behavior, consequently are more likely to adopt that behavior.

All behavior is learned.1.) Criminal behavior is learned2.) Learning takes place in interaction with others (direct vs indirect methods of communication)3.) Learning takes place within intimate social groups 4.) Learning process can be complex or simple. Two basic things are learned- techniques for criminal behavior and the definitions (values, motive, drives rationalizations, attitudes) supporting each behavior.5.) Teachers of criminal acts describe the benefits of law breaking 6.) Criminal behavior often occurs when there is an excess of definitions favoring the behavior. Excess could mean intensity. Absence of the alternative. 7.) Associations providing the learning of criminal behavior vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 8.) Involves same mechanisms in any other learning9.) Economic disadvantage - behavior not explained by economical needs and values. Noncriminal behavior is based off same needs and values.

1) What is "anomie" in Merton's work? Why is anomie so important in explaining criminal and deviant behaviour in American society? Be sure you understood and can describe Merton's five modes of adaptation and their implications for deviant and criminal behavior. Focus on the "innovation" form of adaptation.

Certain goals are emphasized throughout society sometimes they are too strongly stressed. Legitimate ways to achieve these goals are also emphasized. This is important in understanding why there is criminal and deviant behavior in American society because it explains the frustration of lower class individuals and people in subcultures who are unable to attain the goals expected of them by traditional American society. In turn, gangs are created and a different social structure is created among sub-cultures where different values that are more criminally centered are what drives individuals. Individuals are unnable to reconcile their aspirations with their limited opportunities. Social conditions do change for better or for worse. Modes of adaptation:conformity (cultural goals +and institutionalized means +)Innovation Cult. + Inst. - most common (end justifies the means)Ritualism Cult. - Inst. + keeping the job instead of achieving success Retreatism Cult - Inst -Rebellion +/-, +/- (substitution of new goals and means)

1) Try to understand and be ready not just to list, but also to explain and describe criminal, violent, and retreatist subcultures and the specific features of the neighborhoods (above all in terms of opportunity structure and of integration among generations) where these subcultures may arise. Focus on Cohen's ideas about the major status problems that lower-class children face (example: the educational system, p. 94 of ch.7).

(Cloward and Ohlin) Illegitimate opportunity structure as well as legitimate waysForm of delinquent subculture depends on degree of integration in the community. In community without stable criminal structure, lower class juveniles would have no opportunity to succeed in life through criminal means than conventional meansMost common form of delinquency: gangsGangs known put into category of culture, subculture Transition of culture and differential association are why kids join gangsBeginning: Middle class was the norm, college for students became norm, soviet success led to change in education system. Peaking Urbanization increased deteriorating central city areas. Middle class America saw themselves as superior to the lower class and its delinquent tendencies. Now: The degree of social control within a community is dependent on how well the criminal element is organized. Also dependent on relationship between criminal element and the community's official leadership. Organized criminals want a safe community for them and their families just like any other family. They can use their influence as community members to control the level of police protection in their town.Cohen found that highest form of delinquency is gangs.(stealing=peer status)An environment that encourages criminal behavior.Criminal Activity:Delight in discomfort of othersVersatility in acts (multiple per person)Interested in the present short run, hedonistic Hostile to outsiders (group autonomy)Everyone competes for social status - not everyone obtains it or canMiddle class has clear advantage over lower classLoss of leadership from parents- can't be expected to lie to kids about there being a better future so kids are lost trying to find social status (lower class). Education not a priority Reaction Formation: Defensive mechanism to overcome anxiety especially prevalent among those who feel the unfair imbalance the most. Leads to hostility.

The labeling process

Secondary Deviance

A norm violation or crime that comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents, who apply a negative label that has long term consequences for the violators self identity and social interactions.

Differential Association Theory

people learn to commit crime from exposure and anti social definitions.

Neutralization Theory

Youth learn ways of neutralizing moral restraints and periodically drift in and out of criminal behavior patterns

Hirschis Control theory

a persons bond to society prevents him or her from violating social rules. if the bond weakens the person is free to commit crime.

Labeling theory

people enter into law violating careers when they are labeled and organize their personalities around the labels

The view that criminality is a function of people's interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society.

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

a theory of delinquency that links deviance with the absence of bonds to society main institutions

Suggests that people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such

socialization

The process by which people learn customs and values of their culture.

parental efficacy

the ability of parents to be supportive of their children and effectively control them in noncoercive ways

differential association theory

a theory that explains deviance as a learned behavior determined by the extent of a person's association with individuals who engage in such behavior

culture conflict

manifests itself whenever a person experiences conflicting thoughts, feelings, or behaviors due to divided cultural loyalties

drift

movement in and out of delinquency

neutralization techniques

METHODS OF RATIONALIZING DEVIANT BEHAVIOR SUCH AS DENYING RESPONSIBLITY OR BLAMING THE VICTIM.

self control

a strong moral sense that renders a person incapable of hurting others or violating social norms

commitment to conformity

A strong personal investment in conventional institutions, individuals, and processes that prevents people from engaging in behavior that might jeopardize their reputation and achievements

the ties that bond people to society

moral entrepreneur

Person who creates moral rules, which reflect the values of those in power rather than any objective universal standards of right and wrong.

stigmatize

to brand with disgrace; to set a mark of disgrace upon

successful degradation ceremony

A course of action or ritual in which someone's identity is publicly redefined and destroyed and he or she is thereafter viewed as socially unacceptable.

retrospective reading

17. ______ is the process in which the past of the labled person is reviewed and reevaluated to fit his or her current status.

primary deviance

Norm violations that a person commits for the first time and without considering them deviant

secondary deviance

deviance in which an individual's life and identity are organized around breaking society's norms

deviance amplification

Process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out of mainstream society and locks them into an escalating cycle of deviance, apprehension, labeling, and criminal self-identity

racial profiling

Police targeting of racial minorities as potential suspects of criminal activities.

reflected appraisal

messages you receive from others that assess your self concept

diversion programs

sentences that keep offenders out of prison; for example, suspended sentences and probation

restitution

community service or paying in order not to face trial

Branches of Critical theory

Left realism

crime is a function of relative deprivation; criminals prey on the poor

Critical feminist theory

The Capitalist system creates patriarchy, which oppresses woman

Power-Control Theory

girls are controlled more closely then boys in traditional male dominated households; there is gender equity in contemporary egalitarian homes

peacemaking criminology

Peace and humanism can reduce crime; conflict resolution strategies can work

the struggle for power in society. human behavior in social contexts results from conflicts between competing groups

critical criminologists

Criminologists who believe that the cause of crime can be linked to economic, social, and political disparity

power

The ability of persons and groups to control the behavior of others. to shape public opinion, and to define deviance

supranational criminology

Comprising the study of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and the penal system in which such crimes are prosecuted and tried

instrumental theorists

Critical criminologist who view the law and justice system as serving the interests of the upper classes

structural theorists

Critical criminologist who believe the law is designed to keep the capitalist system operating in an effective manner

surplus value

the excess profits that are produced by the laboring classes and accrued by business owners

marginalization

Groups lacking desirable traits are excluded from society. These groups include poor, uneducated, undesirable color and language. These groups will stay on the margin of acceptance by society unless there is social intervention.

globalization

The creation and maintenance of transnational markets

State (organized) crime

criminal acts committed by government officials

extraordinary rendition

The practice of sending suspected terrorists to foreign prisons that permit torture in the interrogation of suspects

dropout factories

High schools in which the completion rate is consistently 40% or less. (page 209)

left realism

an approach that is left leaning but realistic in its appraisal of crime and its causes. crime is seen as class conflict in an advanced industrial society

preemptive deterrence

Efforts to prevent crime through community organization and youth involvement

critical feminism

View that gender inequality is a result of the exploration of women in a male-dominated society

patriarchal

the system of society or government controlled by men

hegemonic masculinity

the belief in the existence of a culturally normative ideal of male behavior

paternalistic families

Families in which fathers assume the traditional role of breadwinners, while mothers tend to have menial jobs or remain at home to supervise domestic matters

role exit behaviors

In order to escape from a stifling life in male-dominated families, girls may try to break away by running away and or even attempting suicide.

egalitarian families

Families in which spouses share similar positions of power at home and in the workplace.

power control theory

a criminological theory that maintains that the structure of gender relations within the family explains gender differences in the crime rate

peacemaking

An approach that considers punitive crime control strategies to be counter productive and favors the use of humanistic conflict resolution to prevent and control crimes

Restorative justice

A view of justice that focuses on the needs of victims, the community, and offenders, and focuses on non punitive strategies to heal the wounds caused by crime

reintegrative shaming

the concept that people can be reformed if they understand the harm they have caused and are brought back into the social mainstream

sentencing circle

a method of dispensing justice involving discussion between offenders, victims, and members of the community

life course theory

Theory that focuses on changes in criminality over the life course brought about by shifts in experience and life events

propensity theory

stable unchanging feature, characteristic property or condition such as defective intelligence or impulsive personality, makes some people crime prone

trajectory theory

the view that there are multiple independent paths to a criminal career and that there are different types and classes of offenders

criminal career

Engaging in antisocial acts early in adolescence and continuing illegal behaviors into adulthood. A pattern of persistent offending across the life course

developmental theory

the view that criminality is a dynamic process influenced by social experiences as well as individual characteristics

life course theory

Theory that focuses on changes in criminality over the life course brought about by shifts in experience and life events

propensity theory

stable unchanging feature, characteristic property or condition such as defective intelligence or impulsive personality, makes some people crime prone

latent trait

A stable feature, characteristic, property, or condition, present at birth or soon after, that makes some people crime prone over the life course

trajectory theory

the view that there are multiple independent paths to a criminal career and that there are different types and classes of offenders

population heterogeneity

Propensity to commit crime is stable; those who have it continue to commit crime over their life course

state dependence

The propensity to commit crime profoundly and permanently disrupts normal socialization. Early rule breaking strengthens criminal motivation and increases the probability of future rule breaking.

early onset

the view that kids that begin engaging in antisocial behaviors at a very early age are the ones most at risk for a criminal career

problem behavior syndrome

A CLUSTER OF ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIORS THAT MAY INCLUDE FAMILY DISFUNCTION.

age graded theory

Sampson and Laub's theory that individual traits and childhood experiences are important to understand onset of delinquent and criminal behavior

turning points

According to LAUB and SAMPSON, the life events that alter the development of a criminal career.

positive life sustaining relations with individuals and institutions

cumulative disadvantage

the tendency of prior social problems to produce future ones and undermine success

propensity

an innate natural inclination or tendency to behave in a particular way or pattern

general theory of crime

Gottfredson and Hirschi's developmental theory that links crime to impulsivity and a lack of self control

self control

to a persons ability to exercise restraint and control over his or her feelings emotions reactions and behaviors

impulsive

lacking in thought or deliberation in decision making. and impulsive person lacks close attention to details has organizational problems and is distracted and forgetful

authority conflict pathway

pathway to deviance that begins at an early age with stubborn behavior and leads to defiance and then to authority avoidance

covert pathway

Pathway to criminal career that behinds with minor underhanded behavior, leads to property damage, and eventually escalates to more serious forms to theft and fraud

overt pathway

Path to a criminal career that begins with minor aggression, leads to physical fighting, and eventually escalates to violent crime

adolescent-limited offenders

kids who get into minor scrapes as youth but whose misbehavior ends when they enter adulthood

life course persisters

Delinquents who begin their offending career at a very early age and continue to offend well into adulthood

abstainers

Adolescents who do not engage in any deviant behavior, a path that places then outside the norm for their age group

criminal career

critical theory

elements of impulsivity

problem behaviors

people to know

edwin h Sutherland -differential association Greshams sykes nd david matza- neutralization theoryVolkin topalli- learning theory pg179travis hirschi- social control theory (cause of deliq) Edwin lemerts- primary and secondary deviance karl marx- critical criminology / conflict theory Richard quinney- the social reality f crime/ conflict theory of crimehoward zinn- disobedience and democracy alette smeulers, roelof haveman- supranational crimesJim Messerschmidt- masculinity and crimeJohn Hagan- power control theory Howard Zehr- restorative justice Rolf Loeber- pathways to crime Hirschi and Gottfredson- self control theory Sampson and Laub- life course theory Herrnstein and Wilson- integrated theory Terrie Moffit- developmental theory of crime Sykes and Matza- techniques of neutralization David Farrington- integrated cognitive antisocial potential

Strain Theory

Crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they an use to obtain them legally.â¢Cause of anti-social behaviorâ¢Assumption of individual is normal and in the social normâ¢A set of factors and motivations that puts the individual outsideâ¢Merton's definition of Strain-A gap between expectation and payoff-Anomie is the consequence of strainâ¢The lack of limits-2 payoffsâ¢Extrinsic Payoffâ¢Intrinsic Payoff

Differential Opportunity

which states that people in all strata of society share the same success goals but that those in the lower class have limited means of acheivng them

people learn the techniques and attitudes of crime from close and intimate relationships with criminal peers; crime is a learned behavior

maintains that everyone has the potent ions to become a criminal, but that most people are controlled by their bonds to society. Crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken

says people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such, and they accept those labels as a personal identity

Social Learning Theory, Social Control Theory, Social Reaction Theory

Direct Conditioning (Differential Reinforcement)

when behavior is reinforced by being either rewarded or punished while interacting with others

Commitment to Conformity

which requires that they obey the rules of society

Self- Control Theory

Explain all varieties of criminal behavior and all the social and behavioral correlates of crime

Reimen: Ideology

a widely held set of beliefs hat justify the status quo and its inequalities

Demonstrable

verifiable by some widely agreed-upon means, say, those used by science, and it should be sufficient gravity to outweigh the value of the freedom that is to be legally prohibited

Robbers, Extortionists, and Occupying Soldiers

characterize those who enforce an unjust law and an unjust order

Ideological Context

once starts to create meaning

Knowing Subject

-trying to know the world, has ideas theories, descriptions about crime, law, justice, etc.-Characterized by: Circumstances, experiences, interests

Criminology as Ideology (Knowing Subject)

Ex: Young woman 19, vs. Old Man.-Each experience and circumstances, shape them differently. Forms of processing of knowing will reflect.-Idea in Ideological terms: provide leavers to action (if this is the way things are, maybe we should be doing this)-Knowledge generally reflects a particular set of circumstances and interests-Ideas have roots and consequences

Ideology (Knowing Subject)

Use of reports about the world that justify commands to do something in the public realm that serves interests rooted in particular circumstances. (Chiricos definition based by Gouldner's book)

Rational

-ideology predicates action on reports. -Reports predicates evidence for why we should do something

Reports

-Statements or ideas about what is, what was, what will be, why things are, how things are, etc. -Descriptive or Explanatory of what is, what was, or what will be.-Descriptive, historical, philosophical, statistical, theoreticalEx: if you had a table of arrests of woman and men over time-Crime peaks between 18-19

Commands

statements of what should be, or must be, or what should not be or must not be done.

Interests

-Have a stake in the outcome of public action.-Function of their circumstances (what people do, have, live) provide different interestsEx: Chiricos son chewing tobacco

Jeremy Betham

1790: Into to Principle of Morals and Legislations

Beccaria

-Energized by enlightenment-Critique the existing social order the monarchy inherited space on land, guilt, immobility, the church, forms of education-Critique of law and punishment-Asymmetrical Relations to Power-Got what they got because of who they were and not what they did

Bourgeoisie

-Emergence of a New Class: Bourgeoisie -Market people: lived by market exchanges. (bankers, merchants, traders)-Essence of circumstance: purchase, trade, and hope to get more money. Maximize utility-Inherent uncertainty: money you put out for commodity, when you get it, it may not be all that you thought it would be-Vulnerability to theft

Reports (Classical Criminology)

-punishments more consistently applied so as to better protect the property of the bourgeoisie.-Reports of human nature resonate who bourgeoisie is-Bourgeoisie run the world as we know it:-Masters of market place-Sensuality (maximize utility)

Rationality (Classical Criminology)

-Judgment of truth; process evidence: course of action with efficient move us towards are goals or ends. Critical evidence in a rational choice of behavior, they act more or less rationally depending on how much evidence is accessed, how efficiently, how important it is to the person weighing-Process of evidence as basis for acting (choosing crime or not)-Individual Freedom

Commands (Classical Criminology)

-Punishment should intrude on natural liberty as little as possible-Punishment should produce utility and can only be justified if it does (because it is an intrusion on natural liberty-To deter crime, punishment should be something a rational utility maximizing person can take into account (to weigh costs and benefits when making a rational choice

Reports (Positive Criminology)

-Evidence justifies commands, and commands serve interest-Causes of behavior: why and how it happens-If we know why things happen, we have the ability to control them

A. Comte

-Father of positivism-Saw the social scientists as becoming the new moral guide for governments-Discover the laws of social statics and social dynamics-Devote themselves to resolving the alarming revolutionary constitution of modern society-Reveal laws to the multitudes so that they could accommodate themselves to the inevitability to what is -Positive spirit consolidates order

Pathology & Ubiquity and Functionality

-Pathological differences that determine criminal behavior-Pathology: untenable variant condition-Directly justifies the command of control-Clear standard of normal and healthy, ignore both ubiquity and functionality of crime-Justifies control in specific terms

Circumstances (Positive Criminology)

Emergence of bourgeoisie as a controlling power-Economically-Socially-Politically-IdeologyElevating control as a goal

Pathology

Basis of Cause-Seem to be in pathological differences-One word that mobilizes positive criminology, is Cause

Differentiation

-Core element in the discovery of cause in science, generally-Method is embodied in the controlled experiment. About the establishment of cause -Starts with an experiment and controlled condition and group. Two conditions that are matched as equally as possible at Time 1.-At Time 1: Makes both the experiment and the control the same. â¢ Random Assignmentâ¢ Matching-At Time 2: Something is introduced to the experimental condition and the experimental group, at some point becomes Z (criminal behavior), which is completely different than X(non-criminal behavior). -Time 3: Differentiates criminals from non-criminals

Overlap

describes the relationship between good and bad at the same time.-Sometimes the line between crime and non crime is not so clear-Was he a good boy? Yes. Was he a bad boy? Yes. At the same time good. He was not either bad or good. There was an overlap of bad and good.

Irony

describes the relationship between good and bad over time.-The bad can eventuate in good and the good can eventuate in bad

Concentrated Disadvantage

isolated, concentrated, poverty. -Higher than usual of drug use, unemployment, single parent households.-Over specification

Hard (Determinism)

-Pushing a chair on the ground, it fell over. What happen had to happen. No other outcome was possible given the play forces involved.-Applies the same idea to human behavior. What happens, has to happen, because of determinant factors in the background.-B.F. Skinner: behavior is shaped by its consequences-Conceit: we are better than objects

Soft (Determinism)

-Idea that humans are embedded in causal and determining influences of all kinds, historical, cultural, familiar, personal, that limit and constrain, enforce, over which we have no control.-Soft determinism says that it is not absolute-Humans are knowing, conscious, intentional agents of action, and they are subjects as well as objects. We are knowing, aware, potential, and choosingâ¢Ex: his parents were both addicted to nicotine. 2-3 pack a day smokers. They were subjects

Control Theory

Lack of Controlâ¢See the world being a consistent, uniform, normal, cultural whole

Learning Theories

Social/ Cultural LearningCharacterized by diversity-Argues that criminality is from within-The criminal is inside, is a conformist, is socializedâ¢Conformist that learns to accept and do crime as a normal, moral part of social life

Paradigm Shift

â¢Kuhn- Structure of Scientific Revolution-Normal Science Apply Dominate Paradigm Shift-Facts don't fit (Earth Centered Universe)Paradigm shifts happen when things being observed couldn't fit the paradigmâ¢Two reasons that would emerge that didn't make sense-Galelo observation-The world changes

Circumstances

Self Report Surveysâ¢Social movements in oppositions to entrenched power-Civil rights movement-Women's movement-Anti-war movement-Anti- colonial revolutions

Superordinate vs. Subordinate

Wherever there is power as an aspect of human relations = superordinate and subordinate joined together. Cannot have one without the other. Cannot of have power without the relationshipâ¢Both of realities, but different realitiesâ¢Superordinate's have interest in maintain the status quoâ¢Ideology reflect circumstances of interests in particular conditions

Detached Neutrality

As knowing subjects, is in interval element in the construction of knowledge. That knowledge is a human construction, we are culturally constructed by circumstances, interests, and experiences

Howard Becker

â¢Gave keynote address for the emergence for critical criminology -He challenged the presumption of detached neutralityâ¢How he was raised on social scienceâ¢Becker's address said-To have values or not to have values said that was nonsense because we are going to have values, the question was what are the values going to be?

Feudalism (Classical Criminology)

â¢Characterized by series of rigid hierarchal arrangements like the church-In each of those subs, people got what they got because of who they wereâ¢Classical criminology said the same thing about punishment, people get what they get because of what they do or who they areâ¢Gave power based on who you are

stratified society

people grouped by economic or social class

culture of poverty

lower-class culture. mistrust of government agencies. Passed onto generations

view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime

breakdown in inner city neighborhoods of institutions such as family, school, and employment

strain theory

crime as a function of the conflict between peoples goals and the means available to obtain them

cultural deviance theory

strain and social disorganization together resulting in a unique lower class culture that conflicts with conventional social norms

cultural transmission

traditions passed down to other generations

transitional neighborhood

area undergoing shift in population and structure, middle class to lower class

Shaw and McKay concentric zones

Zone 1 and 2 always had the highest crime rates, inner city. Even when ethnic competition changed

concentration effect

as middle and working class people move away from the inner city, the most disadvantaged people are consolidated in the ghettos

collective effecacy

communities coming together to maintain public order and supervise children

anomie theory

anomie results when socially defined goals are mandated but access to legitimate means is stratified by class and status

institutional anomie theory

anomie pervades US culture because the drive for wealth is undermines social and community values

relative deprivation

envy and mistrust resulting from perceptions of economic and social inequality

negative affective states

anger and frustration produced by a variety of sources of strain

general strain theory

multiple sources of strain interact with an individuals emotional traits and responses to produce criminality

reaction formation

adopting norms directly opposed to middle class goals just to form hostility

differential opportunity

lower class youths, who legitimate opportunities are limited, join gangs to achieve success

criminalit is a function of peopels interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society

people learn to be criminals by observing others

people commit crime when the binding to society is broken

the view that people become criminals when they are labeled as such

Criminology Flashcards ionicons-v5-c