Hosa Cpr/ First Aid #1 Flashcards
Quickly and safely
The primary objective of all peace officers responding to an emergency call should be to get to the call as ____ and ___ as possible.
dispatch
At the scene, peace officers should evaluate the nature of the accident and communicate critical information to ______ .
First responder's
Evaluating the emergency - Ensuring the officer's, the injured persons' and the public's safety - taking necessary enforcement actions related to the incident - and initiating actions regarding care of the injured persons should be assumed as who's responsibility.
Pathogens
these are spread through the air or by contact with another person's blood or bodily fluids
Virus
a submicroscopic agent that is capable of infecting living cells. Once inside they can reproduce and cause illness or disease.
(PPE) Personal Protective Equipment like gloves, mask, eye protection, ventilation devices
By using these, EMS personnel can break the chain of transmission of pathogens and prevent possible exposure and infection.
Universal precautions
Treating all bodily fluids as if they are contaminated, washing hands before and after contact, and using proper cleaning procedures to equipment that may have been exposed are examples of universal ____ peace officer should take.
Health and Safety
Assuming EMS acts within the scope of the duties, in good faith, and provide care within their scope of training they can not be held liable for damages, this is written in the ____ & ____ Code
TRUE
True or False? Providing care outside of the scope of one's training, or being grossly negligent which causes injury can result in a lawsuit.
Initial Survey
The rapid 30-45 second systematic assessment of a victim to determine if life threatening conditions exist is called
Responsiveness, ABC's, Major Bleeding, Treat for shock
During the initial survey officers should check
Focused Survey
Systematic examination to determine whether serious conditions exist. example, Checking vital signs, gathering info about the subject, conducting head to toe check for injuries
Nonsalvageable, Immediate, Delayed, Minor
When assessing the condition of multiple victims, officers should classify each victim into one these four categories
Nonsalvageable
This multiple victim assessment category defines these people as dead or not breathing
Immediate
This multiple victim assessment category defines these people as breathing, and with circulation but unable to follow commands like "open your eyes"
Imminent Danger
Because of spinal injury, you should never move an injured person unless you are unable to assess, like a person slumped over a steering wheel, or _______ ______ like fire, explosion, downed power lines
Check for major bleeding, Treat for shock, Activate EMS if necessary
When checking for responsiveness, a person is responsive and breathing. What do you do?
look listen and feel for breathing
To assess if the subject is breathing, position yourself with ear near the mouth, eyes looking at the chest, and for five to ten seconds _____,______ and ______ for breathing
Version 4.5 Give 2 breaths, approx 1 second each. Look for chest to rise. Version 5.0 Check pulse and give 30 compressions
A person is not responsive on initial survey and is not breathing either, whats the first thing you do?
Check for circulation (pulse)
A person is not responsive on initial survey, but is breathing, what's the next thing you do?
Carotid
The presence of a pulse on a child or adult is taken at the ______ artery
brachial
The presence of a pulse on an infant is taken at the _____ artery
5 to 10 seconds
How long should you check the pulse of a victim on the initial survey?
Begin CPR
A person has no pulse after giving two initial survey breaths, what happens next?
Continue with rescue breathing
A person has a pulse but is not breathing, what do you do?
Check for major bleeding, treat for shock, place victim in the recovery position
If the victim has a pulse, is breathing, but is unconscious and you do not suspect spinal injuries or major bleeding
On the side, with the head supported by the lower forearm
What is the recovery position?
Move on to the next victim
During a multiple victim assessment, you notice a person is unconscious and not breathing. You clear his airway then measure again and he is still not breathing. What do you do next?
Non-salvageable, Immediate, Delayed, Minor
What are the four classifications of multiple victims assessments?
life threatening
A victim should only be moved from his location if he is in a ____ ______ situation
shoulder drag
When moving a victim, the ____ ___ technique can be used to move them regardless if the victim is supine (face up) or prone (face down)
nose
During rescue breathing a person's mouth is injured and cannot be used, the officer should use the mouth to _____ position
10 to 12
Rescue breathing rate for adults and children 8 and over per minute
12 to 20
Rescue breathing rate for infants up to children 8 an under per minute
rescue breathing
If the victim is not breathing but has a pulse, what should be done next?
Begin CPR
If the victim is not breathing and has no pulse, what should be done?
recovery position
Ãf the victim resumes adequate breathing and there are no indications of major bleeding or spinal injuries, then the victims can be placed in the _____ position
Recheck airway, then give smaller, slower breaths
During rescue breathing, a person's stomach experiences gastric distension, what should be done about this?
Turn victim's body to the side, wipe the victims mouth, recheck airway, return to supine position, return to rescue breathing
If the victim vomits during rescue breathing, what should you do?
cardiac arrest
You come upon a person who is unresponsive, not breathing, and has no carotid pulse. This person is in a state of _____ _____ and will die without immediate care
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
a method of artificially restoring and maintaining a person's breathing and circulation
4 to 6 minutes
A person is clinically dead once breathing and circulation stops, Biological death usually takes place within ____ to ____ minutes, brain cells die, vital organs begin to deteriorate
CPR
A person is not responsive, has an open airway, is not breathing, and has no pulse. What procedure should be started?
treat for shock, monitor closely, place in recovery position if appropriate
After performing CPR, the victim begins breathing and has a pulse. What should be done now?
And on the sternum at the imaginary nipple line. Place second hand over the first one.
The compression point for adults and children 1-8 is the same. What is it?
100 per minute
What is the compression rate for single person Can for adults, children and infants
One finger width below an imaginary line between the nipples
The compression point for an infant is
Using two fingers only
With what part of your hand should you perform the chest compressions of an infant
Victim begins to breath again, officer is relieved, too exhausted to continue, environmental hazards continued CPR efforts would endanger the lives of others
CPR should be continued until
15 to 2
During two person CPR, infants and children should receive chest compression to breath ratio of
After the 2 minutes of officer performing ventilation, gives one more breath, as chest is falling, rescuers switch positions
During two person CPR, when is a good time to switch positions?
After 5 cycles or 2 minutes
During CPR, chest compression are given as well as rescue breathing. After how many cycles of 30 to 2 or how many minutes of performing CPR should you stop and re-check pulse
Two minutes
Rescuers should provide about how many minutes of CPR before activating the AED to reanalyze the heart rhythm and attempt another shock?
Direct Pressure, Elevation, Pressure Points, Tourniquet
There are four techniques that may be used to control bleeding at the scene of an emergency. What are they?
Head Tilt chin lift
Of the two maneuvers for opening the airways, this one provides maximum airway opening.
Abdominal thrusts (Heimlich maneuver) or Chest Compressions.
The two primary maneuvers for dealing with a severe airway obstruction are
Infants or pregnant women
Abdominal thrusts should not be used on
Back blows and chest compressions
A combination of____ blows and____ compressions may be used to dislodge a foreign object from an infants airway
Heart, blood vessels, blood
The 3 main components to the circulatory system are
Direct pressure
This bleeding control method is the most common and effective. It should be used first before other options.
If a fracture to that limb or spinal cord injury is suspected
When should you not use the elevation method for bleeding control?
Pressure points
Used when bleeding is not controlled through direct pressure or elevation
Tourniquet
This bleeding control method uses a device to close off all blood flow to and from a limb, should only be used for life threatening conditions as a last resort when all other methods have failed
Abrasion
A scraping away of only the outer portion of the skin
Laceration
Jagged edged wound, caused by objects tearing or ripping the skin, broken glass, Jagged metal, saws,
Shock.
Perfusion is the continued flow of blood through the capillaries, supplying oxygen an removing waste products. Inadequate Perfusion leads to ______.
Second
Degree of burn where the skin appears red an spotted, with blisters. Known also as partial thickness burns
Third
Degree of burn where the skin appears dry, leathery, discolored Nerve endings are destroyed
Cardiac emergency
A person is experiencing chest pains, pain down the arm, some heartburn, shortness of breath and sweating. What does this indicate?
Yes
A person is experiencing a cardiac arrest but is alert enough to ask you to grab his prescribed medications and open the bottle. Is this okay to do?
Seizure
A result of an surge of energy through the brain
Epilepsy
Individuals with____ may exhibit characteristics similar to the effects of drug use or intoxication.
Don't restrain, move objects out of the way, cushion the person's head
Things you can do to help a person while they are seizing.
Stroke
When an artery providing blood to the brain is blocked or ruptured and creates excess pressure in the brain. The person experiences a_____.
Insulin shock or diabetic coma
An improper level of insulin in the body can lead to two dangerous conditions what are they?
Children
______ are the most common victim's of poisoning.
Ingestion, Inhalation, Absorption, Injection
Four ways poison can enter the body I. I. A. I
Anaphylactic Shock
An allergic reaction to poisons or food that can affect different parts of the body at the same time
Hypothermia
Occurs when the body's internal temperature drops to the point where the body's systems are affected
Mild to moderate
Violent shivering, numbness, fatigue, loss of motor coordination, rapid breathing, rapid pulse are indicators of___ to___ hypothermia
Severe
Lack of shivering, rigid muscles/joints, slow shallow breathing, slow pulse, blue/Grey skin color are indicators of_____ hypothermia
No
Should you rub a frostbitten body part?
cramps
Heat ____ can strike when the body loses too much salt due to prolonged perspiration
exhaustion
Heat _____ is a form of shock that can occur when the body becomes dehydrated, accompanied by profuse sweating, dizziness, headache, rapid pulse etc.
stroke
Heat ____ is a life threatening condition requiring immediate attention accompanied by red, hot, dry skin, shallow breathing, and possible seizures and/or unconsciousness
Epinephrine
A medication used for allergic reaction or anaphalxis to allevaite swollen blood vessels and will open up bronchioles.
Rapidly
First aid for heat stroke includes activating EMS, Monitor ABC's Remove victim from source of heat. And Cooling the victim's body as_____ as possible
Slowly
First aid measure for frostbite includes wrapping the area n dry loose bandages and allowing the area to re-warm quickly or slowly?
What are the 5 parts to the AHA Chain of Survival?
1.Recognition & activation of EMS2.CPR3.Rapid defibrillation 4.Effective advanced life support5.Post cardiac arrest care
Normal respiration rate for adults
12-20 Breaths per min
Normal respiration rate for children
15-30 bpm
Normal respiration rate for infants
25-50 bpm
What is the circulatory system made of?
blood, heart, and blood vessels
Arterial direction of blood flow
away from heart
What happens when an artery is cut?
blood spurts out
Where is the carotid artery?
in the neck - can be palpated
Where is the femoral artery?
in the thigh (palpated in groin area)
Where is the brachial artery? When is it used?
Inner part of upper arm (between elbow & armpit) -- used with infants
What is low blood pressure?
hypotension
What is plasma?
liquid part of blood-- mostly water
What do red blood cells do?
Carry oxygen to organs
What causes shock?
inadequate circulation
What are signs of shock?
pale/cyanotic skin, cool, clammy skin, rapid pulse/breathing, restlessness, anxiety, mental dullness, nausea/vomiting, low/decreasing blood pressure, below-normal body temp
What does the cerebrum control?
sensation, thought, associative memory
Where is the sight center located?
occipital lobe
What directs smell and hearing?
temporal lobes (side of head)
What is the autonomic nervous system?
processes not controlled by conscious mind
What are the 5 parts of the spinal column?
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx
What is the lowest part of the sternum (breastbone) called?
xiphoid process
What is the thorax made of?
ribs and sternum
What is a joint?
where 2 or more bones meet/join.
What can be a sign of nerve injury?
loss of muscle tone
What are the 2 layers of the skin?
epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer)
What does red skin generally mean?
excess circulation to part of body
What does white(pale) skin generally mean?
extreme blood loss, shock, hypothermia
What does blue skin generally mean?
lack of oxygen
what does yellow skin mean?
liver disease/failure
What temperature/moisture of the skin is a sign of heat stroke?
hot and dry skin
What temperature/moisture level of the skin is a sign of heat exhaustion and also shock?
cool and moist (clammy skin)
How can you check blood circulation?
capillary refill test
How does heart attack occur?
blood supply is reduced/stopped to the heart-- usually caused by a clot in one or more coronal arteries
What is cardiac arrest(ventricular fibrillation)?
the heart stops beating
How many hands are used for child CPR? How deep?
One or two hands. About 2 inches
How many hands are used for infant CPR? How deep?
Use 2 fingers. About 1.5 inches
What is the optimum rate of compressions?
100 compressions/minute
What are signs of a severe airway obstruction?
Difficulty breathing, weak cough, inability to speak/breathe, bluish gray skin, fingernail beds, or inside of mouth (cyanosis)
How to remove airway obstruction from responsive infant?
Infant on knee with head, neck, and back supported. 5 back blows. Turn infant over and give 5 chest compressions
How does the heart work?
2 chambers on left side of heart get oxygenated blood from lungs, then sends to the rest of the bodyveins bring oxygen rich blood from lungs to heartsee figure 6-2 pg 81 of big cpr book
What is ventricular tachycardia?
heart beats too fast to pump blood effectively
Medication patches
must be removed before using AED
When does shock occur?
tissues in the body do not receive enough oxygen rich blood
What is anaphylaxis?
extreme allergic reaction
What is pulmonary edema?
resulting buildup of fluid in lungs
What is a hemorrhage?
large amount of bleeding in a short time
What is arterial bleeding?
Most serious type of bleeding. Blood spurts out. Unlikely to clot.
What characterizes venous bleeding?
flows from vein steadily. Easier to control
What is the largest artery in the body?
the aorta
What is an avulsion?
piece of skin or underlying tissue that is torn loose, hanging from the body, or completely removed
What are symptoms of a 2nd degree burn?
blisters, swelling, severe pain
What are symptoms of a 3rd degree burn?
leathery,waxy, pearly gray skin that may appear charred. Dry appearance and feels no pain
Care for chemical burns
1. Brush dry powders from skin and flush body portion with water2. remove contaminated clothing3.flush for 20 mins or longer4. cover burn with dry,sterile dressing
What are some symptoms of a skull fracture?
pain, deformity of skull, bleeding from ears/nose, watery CSF coming from ear or nose, raccoon eyes appearing hours after injury, Battle's sign (discoloration behind ears)
What are some symptoms of a concussion?
LOC, headache, nausea/vomiting, decreased coordination, confusion, seizures, disproportionate pupils, extreme emotions
contusion
direct blow to head causing bruise to brain
What is an edema?
swelling of the brain
Signs of sucking chest wound
blood bubbling from chest, sucking sound during inhalations
Care for sucking chest wound
1.use something to stop air from entering chest cavity (plastic wrap or gloved hand) 2. tape into place leaving ONE end untaped 3. lay victim on uninjured side4. if victim appears to have trouble breathing or is getting worse, remove cover, let air escape, and reapply
Care for protruding organs
1. have victim lay in comfortable position with legs towards abdomen2.cover protruding organs with moist, sterile dressing, or a piece of plastic3. treat for shock
What is a sprain?
joint is twisted or stretched beyond normal range of motion
Signs of sprain
pain, pain prevents victim from moving joint, swelling, skin around joint may be discolored
What is a strain?
pulled muscle
Signs of strain
sudden sharp pain in muscle, extreme tenderness, swelling, weakness and loss of function, stiffness and pain in movement, discoloration after a few days, feels popping or pulling sensation
Care for sprains & strains
RICE: rest, ice, compression, elevation -- 20 minute intervals
What is the difference between heart attack and cardiac arrest?
Heart attack: 1 or more arteries delivering blood to the heart is blockedCardiac arrest: either heart stops being (asystole) or the ventricles suddenly develop a rapid irregular rhythm (ventricular fibrillation)
Heart attack symptoms
chest pain, discomfort in upper body, shortness of breath, cold sweat, nausea, lightheadedness
Care for heart attack
1. 9112. cpr if not breathing3.place person into comfortable position (usually sitting)4. give aspirin if possible
What is an angina?
pain in the chest that spreads to shoulders, neck, arms, and other parts of the body caused by inadequate blood supply to the heart
Types of stroke
1. Ischemic stroke: blood vessels to brain become clogged with fatty deposits (plaque)-- cuts off blood flow to brain2. Hemorrhagic stroke: blood vessel rupture in or near brain-- associated with severe headache
Symptoms of stroke
1.weakness, numbness, paralysis of face, arm, or leg on one side of the body2. blurred vision3. dizziness4.sudden, severe headache
What is type 1 diabetes?
person needs external insulin
What is type 2 diabetes?
caused by bad diet over time -- not enough insulin produced
Treatment for frostbite
1.put victim into warm place2. remove wet or restricting clothing3. place frostbitten area in warm water if there is NO RISK of being frostbitten again
What are symptoms of heat exhaustion?
heavy perspiration, thirst, fatigue, flu-like symptoms, shortness of breath, fast heart rate
Treatment for heat exhaustion
1. move to cool area2. give liquids: cool water, lightly salted water, sports drink3. raise legs4. remove excess clothing5. cool water spray or towel on neck, armpits, and back of neck
What are symptoms of heat stroke?
extremely hot and dry skin, confusion, altered mental state, disorientation
Treatment for heat stroke
1. move to cool area2. remove clothing down to underwear3. keep head slightly elevated4. 9115. do anything to cool victim down immediately: ice immersion
ABC's in CPR means what?
Airway - make sure nothing is blocking it.Breathing - if victim is not breathing, say "Oh, Sh_t!"Cardiac - check for pulse, if none, begin chest compressions.
What does preforming a 'primary survey' and a 'secondary survey' mean concerning the scene of an injured person?
Primary survey is assessment of victim's immediate condition. (Victim's heart and breathing attended to and immediate dangers in area addressed).Secondary survey is a systematic head-to-toe examination of the victim. Look for hidden injuries or medical bracelets etc.
What causes Hypovolemic Shock (also known as hemorrhagic shock)?
Results from blood or fluid loss.
What causes fainting?
When brain's blood supply is interrupted temporarily.
Contusions
Caused by blows to the head but involve bruising and swelling of the brain.
Frostbite
When temperature of tissue drops below freezing.
Hypothermia
body's core temperature is reduced significantly.
Difference between Heat Cramps, Heat Exhaustion, and Heat Stroke?
Heat Cramps - least serious; muscle cramps; profuse sweating.Heat Exhaustion - serious; no muscle cramps; skin cold/clammy; heavy perspiration.Heat Stroke - most serious; no muscle cramps; skin hot & dry; body temp. >105 degrees; usually unconscious; little or no perspiration
R.I.C.E.
Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation.First aid for strains and sprains.
What are signs that indicate a medical emergency?
unusual noise, sight, odor, appearance, behavior.
List some barriers to action
presence of other people, unsure of victim's condition, type of injury or illness, fear of catching disease, fear of doing something wrong, being unsure when to call 911.
Name the 3 C's
check, call, care.
Check what?
scene safety, victims, bystanders, signs and clues, airway, breathing, circulation.
Call who?
911 or EMS.
How long should you check a victim's breathing?
10 seconds.
Define: implied consent
to assume a victim would give permission to treat them if they were conscious.
Transmitting diseases key things
can be airborne, in a fluid, or vector (bite), injured person must be infected, rescuer has to have a break in skin, must be sufficient amount of pathogens.
Define: pathogens
a disease causing microorganism.
Care for first 2 minutes IF:
unconscious adult, adolescent, or infant, or witnessed collapse.
Call first FOR:
cardiac emergencies, drowning victims, unwitnessed collapse.
Walking assist move
1 or 2 persons with a conscious person, use your body as a crutch, don't use if suspected head, neck, or back injury.
Pack strap carry
use with conscious person, place person on your back and cross arms in front of you, don't use if suspect head, neck, or back injury.
2 person seated carry
requires 2 people, use with conscious victim not seriously injured, interlock arms and place under knees to carry.
Clothes drag
Use on unconscious or conscious person WITH suspected head, neck, or back injuries. keep head, neck, back, stable. grab clothing behind neck, pull to safety while supporting head in your forearms.
Blanket drag
used to move unconscious person or conscious, support person on side and place blanket underneath, roll person back onto back and gather blanket at the head and move gently.
Foot drag
use when a person is too large, firmly grasp ankles and move backwards in straight line, DO NOT BUMP HEAD, CHECK SCENE!
Body mechanics to know
feet shoulder width apart, knees flexed, back straight, work in direction of your efforts, close to load, push and pull DON'T LIFT, get help, work in unison.
Water victims care
reach victim BUT KEEP YOURSELF SAFE FIRST, call 911, stablize victim face up place one arm under shoulders and one under hips, support victim in water until EMS arrives. flip victim over if face down
respiratory organs
airway and lungs.
respiratory system job
supplies body with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide by breathing.
common respiratory problems
asthma, respiratory distress, respiratory arrest.
circulatory organs
heart, blood, blood vessels.
Which direction do arteries and veins pump blood?
arteries pump blood away from the heart, veins pump towards.
circulatory system job
transports nutrients and oxygen to body cells and removes waste products.
common circulatory problems
cardiac arrest, heart attacks, blood clots.
nervous system organs
brain, spinal cord, nerves.
nervous system job
transmits messages to and from the brain to regulate all of the body and its' systems.
common nervous system problems
paralysis, seizures, strokes, concussions, fainting, loss of consciousness.
musculo-skeletal organs
bones, ligaments, tendons.
What can you sprain and strain?
sprain ligaments and muscles, strain tendons.
musculo-skeletal job
provides framework, protects internal organs, allows movement and heat.
common musculo-skeletal problems
breaks, tears, sprains, strains, and fractures.
integumentary system organs
skin, nails, hair.
integumentary system job
prevents infection, dehydration, and regulates body temperature.
common integumentary system problems
breaks, tears, punctures, lacerations, abrasions.
digestive system organs
mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder.
digestive system job
breaks down food to supply body with energy.
common digestive system problems
ulcers, choking, allergies, food poisioning.
endocrine system organs
glands.
endocrine system job
secretes hormones into blood.
common endocrine problem
diabetes.
genitourinary system organs
uterus, genitilia, kidneys, bladder.
genitourinary system job
reproduction, removes waste, and regulates water balance.
common genitourinary system problems
dehydration, infections.
What is the medical term for a bruise?
ecchymatic.
List body cavities from head to toe
cranial, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic.
common breathing emergencies
choking, illnesses, asthma, electrocution, shock, drowning, heart attack, allergic reactions, drugs, emphysema, bronchitis, croup, hyperventilating.
asthma
a condition that narrows the breathing passages and makes it difficult to breathe, caused by a spasm of the muscle lining in the bronchi.
asthma signs and symptoms
wheezing, difficulty breathing, painful breathing.
asthma treatment
medications (inhaler, fresh air).
bronchitis
a disease resulting in inflammation of the lining of the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles.
bronchitis signs and symptoms
persistent cough, chest tightness, difficulty breathing.
bronchitis treatment
antibiotics.
anaphylatic shock
a severe allergic reaction that can restrict and swell a person's chest cavity and cause death.
anaphylatic shock causes/symptoms
caused by insect stings, food, medication. symptons include chest tightness, swelling of throat, face, and neck, difficulty breathing, dizziness, confusion.
anaphylatic shock treatment
epipen, call 911.
croup
a common viral illness in children that causes swelling of the tissues around the vocal cords, characterized by a "seal bark" type of cough.
croup treatment
fresh cool air, steamy bathroom.
epiglottitis
a bacterial infection that causes severe inflammation of the epiglottis.
epiglottitis signs and treatment
appear ill, fever, sore throat, sitting up to breathe, drooling, difficulty swallowing. treat with antibiotics.
hyperventilation
occurs when breathing is faster than normal, imbalance of oxygen and carbon dioxide, occurs in nervous people, people who are in shock and tense.
hyperventilation treatment
relax the victim.
general respiratory distress care
call 911, help victim rest comfortably, monitor abc's, keep victim from overheating or chilling, assist victim in taking medications.
Respiratory distress can lead to...?
respiratory arrest and body systems deterioration, cardiac arrest, death.
2 types of choking
anatomical, mechanical.
Stopping choking techniques
5 back blows, 5 abdominal thrusts
heart attack symptoms
chest pain, chest heaviness, pale skin, weak pulse, nausea, vomitting, pain radiating to left arm, indigestion, short of breath, sweating.
heart attack care
call 911, rest in comfortable posistion, take nitroglycerine under tongue if available (1 every 3 minutes), montior abc's.
adult cpr guidelines
2 hands on sternum, compress 1 1/2 inches-2inches, 30-2 compression to breaths rate, 5 cycles in 2 minutes.
child cpr guidelines
1 hand on chest, (rescue breathing is 1 every 3 seconds), compress 1 inch-1 1/2 inches, 5 cycles in 2 minutes.
infant cpr guidelines
2 fingers, (rescue breathing is 1 every 3 seconds), mouth covers over mouth and nose, compress 1/2inch-1inch, 5 cycles in 2 minutes.
cardiac chain of survival
early recognition, early cpr, early defibrilation, early advanced medical care.
When do you stop cpr?
try not to however, if the scene becomes unsafe, victim shows signs of life, aed becomes available, another trained responder arrives, too exhausted to continue.
causes of cardiac arrest
drugs, respiratory arrest, drowning, electrocution, weak heart, suffocation, firearm injuries, poison, genetic history factors.
clotting
process which blood thickens at a wound site to seal a hole or tear and stop bleeding.
direct pressure
pressure applied on a wound to control bleeding
hemorrhage
loss of a large amount of blood in a short period of time.
signs of internal bleeding
discoloration, tenderness, swollen, hard tissues, anxiety, restlessness, rapid breathing, cool, moist, pale skin, nausea, vomitting, excessive thirst, declining level of consciousness.
closed wound general care
apply direct pressure, apply cold pack, call 911 if severe.
minor open wound general care
wash out, apply sterile dressing, direct pressure, antiobiotic ointment.
major open wound general care
do NOT wash, apply clean dressing, apply direct pressure, bandage, call 911.
embedded objects wound care
do NOT remove object unless it's preventing breathing, use bulky bandages, be careful not to further move object, control bleeding, call 911.
causes of burns
heat, chemicals, electricity, solar radiation.
first degree burns signs and symptoms
red, dry skin, area is painful, area is swollen (superficial).
second degree burns signs and symptoms
red, wet, skin, open and closed blisters, skin spotted and blotchy, painful, swollen, (deep).
third degree burns signs and symptoms
brown or charred skin, tissue underneath appear white, painful, may be life threatening*.
critical burns locations
face, hands, feet, genitals, airway.
general burns care
stop burning process, cool the burned area, cover the burned area with a bandage, minimize shock, call 911 if third degree.
rocky mountain spotted fever
a serious tick borne disease caused by wood or dog ticks
rocky mountain spotted fever signs and symptoms
spotted rash on ankles or wrists that spreads, fevers, chills, severe headaches, joint and muscle aches. early treatment important because victim could die of kidney failure!!
lyme disease signs and symptoms
tick bite, red rash in bulls eye appearance, fevers, chills, headaches, fatigue, flu-like symptons. contracted by deer ticks
stings and bites signs and symptoms
stinger present, bite marks, pain, local swelling, rash, hives, nausea, difficulty breathing, itchiness.
stings and bites general care
remove stinger by scraping with fingernail or credit card, never use tweezers (only with ticks), wash wound, cover with bandage, apply ice, watch for allergic reactions.
spider bites signs and symptoms
bite marks, black widow bites exhibit sharp pain, brown recluse bites swell and blister, pain, cramping, nausea, vomitting, difficulty breathing/swallowing, sweating, irregular heartbeat.
spider bites care
call 911 as soon as possible, antivenin!
snake bites signs and symptoms
fang bite marks, pain, burning, swelling, tingling, numbness.
snake bite care
wash, apply ice, immobolize, call 911, if pit viper you need antivenin.
jellyfish sting care
soak in vinegar, alcohol, or baking soda paste (with water).
stingray sting care
immobolize, soak in warm water until pain is gone, call 911 if severe.
tetanus signs and symptoms
irritability, headache, fever, painful muscle spasms, symptons occur 3 to 5 days after bites/cuts. call 911.
head, neck, back injuries causes
fall from heigh greater than own, motor vehicle accidents, blunt forces, violence, lightning.
head injury symptoms
change in level of consciousness, pain, pressure, tingling sensation, partial/complete paralysis, blood from ears/nose, seizures, vomitting, nausea, impaired vision, headache, loss of balance, bruising around head/eyes.
inline stabilization warnings
never use if head is severely angled, victim has pain, pressure, or muscle spasms, there is resistance when attempting to move head!
spine parts from top to bottom
cervic, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx.
eye injury general care
keep on back, do not remove any embedded objects, apply dressing around object, stabilize object with cup, call 911.
common ear injuries
soft tissue damage, eardrums, loss of hearing.
ear injury general care
do NOT apply direct pressure, cover lightly, call 911.
scalp injury care
control bleeding with direct pressure, DO NOT apply direct pressure if skull feels spongy (indicates skull fracture).
check injury care
if bleeding inside of the mouth place dressings on inside and apply direct pressure, remove any embedded objects ONLY if impairs breathing, pull object in same direction it entered, apply pressure outside of mouth, sit and lean victim forward.
concussion causes
force to head, causes temporary impairment of brain, may lose consciousness, memory, have severe headaches.
concussion care
rest, medical help - could be severe!
nose injury care
sit victim with head forward, pinch nose, apply ice, call 911 if caused by high blood pressure (bleeding).
chest injury signs and symptoms
breathing difficulty, severe pain, obvious deformity, bruising, discoloration of skin, coughing up blood.
chest injury general care
posistion in comfortable way to aid breathing, if ribs are broken bind arm to injured side.
sucking chest wound care
apply occlusive dressing, treat other life threatening injuries, keep one corner of dressing open.
abdominal injury signs and symptoms
severe pain, external bleeding, nausea, vomitting, bruising, pale ashen moist skin, weakness, thirst, rigid abdomen, organs protruding from abs.
abdominal injury general care
lie victim on back, bend knees to reduce pain, call 911, control bleeding.
pelvis injury signs and symptons
protruding organs, pain, bruising, bleeding, severed body parts... same care as abdominal injuries.
soft splint
blankets, towels, pillows, slings.
rigid splints
boards, metal strips, folded magazines.
anatomic splints
refers to the use of the body like arms, legs.
commerical splint
traction with pulleys and weights.
slings and cravats
triangular bandages used to support arms, forearms, dressings, and bandaids.
splinting key things
support injured thing in posistion you found it, cover open wounds, check area above and below color/warmth/feeling, apply splint above and below, sling into place not directly over injury, check fingers/toes for circulation, elevate if possible, rest, apply ice, prevent shock.
upper extremities
forearm, phalanges, carpals, metacarpals.
shoulder injuries
clavicle, scalpula, humerous, sprains, fractures, dislocation of shoulder.
shoulder injury general care
control bleeding, support in comfortable posistion, if away from body use pillow to support under arm, create sling splint, ice, call 911 if broken.
arm injuries
humerous, radius, ulna, fractures.
arm injury general care
immobolize from shoulder to elbow, control bleeding, sling, if elbow injured DO NOT MOVE, call 911 if you can't find pulse.
lower extremity injuries
femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal, metatarsals, phalanges.
femur fraction key signs
leg turned outward, muscle contracted, leg appears shorter, swollen, possible external bleeding.
lower extremity general care
control any bleeding, immobolize, rest in comfortable posistion, elevate if possible, support leg, monitor color/warmth/feeling, call 911 if suspected broken.
knee injuries
sprains, cuts, bruises, fractures, dislocations.
knee injury general care
control bleeding, support/eleveate knee, ice, rest, splint if it can be straightened.
ankle and foot injuries
sprains, fractures, tears, strains.
ankle and foot injury general care
control bleeding, immobolize with soft splint, check toes for warmth/feeling/color, elevate, ice, call 911 if suspected broken.
fainting (syncope)
temporary reduction of blood flow to the brain.
fainting signs and symptoms
complete loss of consciousness, temporary reduction of blood to head, collapse.
fainting general care
call 911, posistion on flat surface, monitor abc's, loosen clothing, elevate legs.
stroke
disruption of blood flow to brain that can cause death or serious brain damage by a clotted artery.
stroke signs and symptoms
altered level of consciousness, look/feels ill, sudden weakness, numbness, difficulty speaking or being understood, blurred vision, unequal pupils, severe headache, ringing in ears, drooling, loss of bladder control.
stroke general care
call 911 fast, monitor abc's, clear fluids from mouth, reassure and comfort, don't give food.
2 types of strokes
transit ischimic attack and cerebreal vascular accident.
List ways to prevent a stroke
control blood pressure, diet, do not smoke, exercise regularly, control diabetes.
diabetes
the pancreas doesn't produce unsulin that helps with glucose buildup.
diabetes type 1
juvenile diabetes, insulin dependent diabetes where the body produces little or no insulin. must inject insulin into the body.
diabetes type 2
adult onset diabetes, noninsulin dependent, body produces insulin but no enough, is more common, can be controlled by diet.
hypo/hyperglycemia
hypo is when the insulin level is too high and sugar level is too low, hyperglycemia is too low and sugar is too high.
signs and symptons hypo/hyperglycemia
flushed skin, hot, dry, skin, looks ill, sweet, fruity, body odor, irregular breathing, abnormal pulse.
diabetes general care
if conscious give sugary foods or drinks if loss of consciousness call 911.
seizures
sudden loss of body control can be chronic called epilepsy, caused by fevers (febrile), preceded by by aura, feels and looks ill.
seizures signs and symptons
changes in level of consciousness, convulsions, fluids from mouth.
seizure general care
ALLOW to happen, protect victim from injury self, monitor abc's, clear mouth of fluids by posistioning ons ide, call 911 (especially if repeated, pregnany, in water, or never had them before).
Poisons depend on:
type/amount of substance, how and where the poison entered, time elapsed, weight, size, age of victim.
clues of poisoning
vomit, open drug containers, drug paraphernilia, color of skin, irregular breathing, blue lips, consciousness, alcohol bottles, crushed plants, food.
poisoning signs and symptons
nausea, vomiting, chest pain, abdominal pain, dizziness, sweating, seizures, skin discoloration, diarrhea, burns around mouth, headaches.
What is used to induce vomiting?
syrup of ipecac.
What does activated charcoal do?
neutralizes stomach and absorbs poisons.
When should vomitting not be induced?
victim is unconscious, having seizures, pregnant in the last trimester, ingested corrosive substance.
4 ways to be poisoned
ingested, absorbed, inhaled, injected.
types of absorbed poisons
poison ivy, oak, sumac, wet and dry chemicals, lawn fertilizers.
absorbed poisons general care
wash area with calamine lotion, benadryl, corticosteroids.
ingested poisons
foods (bacterial and chemical)
ingested poisons general care
antibiotics, prevent by properly cooking and handling food.
inhaled poisons
carbon monoxide, paints, glues, gasoline.
inhaled poison general care
get to fresh air, treat breathing conditions, call 911 if victim becomes or is unconscious.
frostbite signs and symptons
cold, discolored skin, lack of feeling, waxy look, blisters, can be just nip, superficial, or deep.
frostbite general care
handle very carefully, do NOT rub area, place in warm waters, bandage loosely, if fingers and toes place gauze in between each phalange.
hypothermia signs and symptons
anything below 95 degrees, shivering, slow irregular heart beat, numbeness, apathy, numbness, change in level of consciousness, breathing difficulties.
hypothermia general care
remove wet clothing, call 911, gradually rewarm, use dry blankets, give warm liquid if conscious.
heat cramps signs and symptons
heavy sweating, rapid onset, pain, muscle spasms.
heat cramps general care
rest in a cool place, drink cool water, stretch muscles.
heat exhaustion signs and symptons
cool, moist, pale, skin, headaches, nausea, dizziness, weakness.
heat stroke signs and symptons
sweating stops, red, hot, dry, skin, rapid rise temperature, rapid or weak pulse, changes in consciousness, body systems fail, can lead to cardiac arrest.
heat stroke and exhaustion general care
ice packs under knees, wrists, call 911 if condition worsens, fan, cool body in any way.
Antihistamine
compounds/medications that counteract the effects of histamine
antidote
counteracts the effect of poisonous diseases
antiseptic
frees of contamination of pollution
lethargic
to be drowsy or sluggish
CBG
capillary blood glucose
glaucoma
fasting blood sugar
NKA
no known allergy
PCN
penicillin
SL
sub-lingual
Sq
sub-q tissue, underneath skin
ketones/acetone
organic compounds with carbon that breaks down fat
otoscope
instrument for examining the external canal and tymphanic membrane of the ear
polydipsia
excessive thirst
polyphagia
excessive hunger
polyuria
excessive urination
insulin
hormone that regulates the digestion of glucose and other nutrients
incoherent
unable to be understood
syrup of ipeac
induces vomit
scombroid
fish of the macrall and seafood family
ciquatera
food poisoning from fish, paralyzes breathing muscles
conjuctiva
membrane that covers the eye lid
PCS
post concussion syndrome
glaucoma
increased pressure within the eyeball
optometrist
eye doctor
optician
one who makes/supplies glasses and contacts
vertigo
dizziness
gangrene
death of soft tissue because of obstructed circulation
Normal Saline
0.9% NaCl
supine
laying on back, face forward
edema
abnormal amounts of fluid in connective tissues
pruritis
severe itching of the skin
urticaria
rash with red welts on the skin, usually involves itching
superficial
on the skin, covers skin
purulent
discharging pus
fx
function
CVA
cerebrovascular accident, stroke
TIA
trasient isohernic attack, mini-stroke
LOC
level of conscionousness
CSF
cerebrospinal fluid
SOB
shortness of breath
diaphoresis
abnormal perfuse breathing
N/V
nausea, vommiting
vasoconstriction
constricted vessel that causes high BP
vasodilation
dilated vessel, causes low BP
MVA
motor vehicle accident
agnia pectoris
chest paint
glycosuria
too much sugar in the urine
ambulate
able to walk
MI
myocardial infarction, heart attack
MRI
magnetic resonance imaging
commuted fx
broken bone is shattered
crepitus
abnormal crackling in the lungs
dehiscence
materials being released by organ/tissue opening
emesis
vomiting, throwing up
Narcan
potent narcotic, effective with morphine
mottled
mark of spots or blotches
How many breaths and compressions do you perform for each cycle of CPR?
2 breaths and 30 compressions
How do you treat a cut / gash on a person's arm?
With clean dressing, put gauze pads on the cut. Hold for 1 minute and state that you are holding for 1 minute. If bleeding continues, place more clean gauze pads and hold 1 more minute with more pressure. Bleeding should subside. Wrap arm with some kind of bandage to maintain pressure.
To preform CPR on an infant the rescuer should do compressions at a rate of _____.
at least 100 compressions a minute
A young man was standing to close to a fire and the hair caught on fire. The fire was extinguished quickly but the skin on the forehead is mildly burned. You should ______.
Cool the burn with cold but not ice-cold water
What are the steps to checking a unconscious person?
Make sure scene is safe.Tap the victim's shoulder while asking "Are you okay?" Check for breathing and take carotid pulse.Give 30 compressions.Check for carotid pulse again.Begin CPR.
What are signs that indicate a medical emergency?
unusual noise, sight, odor, appearance, or behavior.
List some barriers to action.
- presence of other people- unsure of victim's condition, type of injury or illness- fear of catching disease- fear of doing something wrong- being unsure when to call 911
Name the 3 C's of first aid.
check, call, care.
What do you check for prior to administering care to a victim?
- scene safety- other victims- bystanders- signs and clues to what type of injury or condition victim has- ABC's (airway, breathing, and circulation)
How long should you check a victim's breathing?
10 seconds.
Define implied consent.
the assumption that a victim would give permission to treat them if he or she were conscious.
List some key facts about the transmission of disease.
- can be airborne, in a fluid, or vector (bite)- injured person must be infected for transmission to occur- rescuer has to have a break in skin- there must be sufficient amount of pathogens
Define pathogen.
a disease causing microorganism.
Provide care for first 2 minutes under what circumstances?
- unconscious adult, adolescent, or infant- witnessed collapse
Call FIRST under what circumstances?
- cardiac emergencies- drowning victims- unwitnessed collapse
List the respiratory organs.
- airway (which consists of the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi)- lungs
What is the function of the respiratory system?
supplies body with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide by breathing.
List some common respiratory system problems.
- asthma- respiratory distress- respiratory arrest
List the circulatory organs.
- heart- blood- blood vessels
Which direction do arteries pump blood?
away from the heart.
Which direction do veins pump blood?
towards the heart.
What is the function of the circulatory system?
transports nutrients and oxygen to body cells and removes waste products.
List some common circulatory system problems.
- cardiac arrest- heart attacks- blood clots
List the nervous system organs.
- brain- spinal cord- nerves
What is the function of the nervous system?
transmits messages to and from the brain to regulate all of the body and its systems.
List some common nervous system problems.
- paralysis- seizures- strokes- concussions- fainting- loss of consciousness.
List the musculoskeletal organs.
- bones- muscles- ligaments- tendons
What organs can you strain?
tendons
What organs can you sprain?
ligaments and muscles
What is the function of the musculoskeletal system?
provides framework, protects internal organs, and allows movement and heat.
List some common musculoskeletal system problems.
- breaks- tears- sprains- strains- fractures
List the integumentary organs.
- skin- nails- hair
What is the function of the integumentary system?
prevents infection and dehydration, and regulates body temperature.
List some common integumentary system problems.
- breaks- tears- punctures- lacerations- abrasions
List the digestive organs.
- mouth- esophagus- stomach- intestines- liver- pancreas- gallbladder
What is the function of the digestive system?
breaks down food to supply body with energy.
List some common digestive system problems.
- ulcers- choking- allergies- food poisoning
List the endocrine organs.
glands.
What is the function of the endocrine system?
secretes hormones into blood.
List some common endocrine system problems.
- diabetes
List the genitourinary organs.
- kidneys- ureters- urinary bladder- urethra- penis (males)- testes (males)- vagina (females)- ovaries (females)- uterus (females)
What is the function of the genitourinary system?
reproduces offspring, removes waste, and regulates water balance.
List some common genitourinary system problems
- dehydration- infections
What is the medical term for a bruise?
ecchymosis
List body cavities from head to toe.
1. cranial2. thoracic3. abdominal4. pelvic
List some common breathing emergencies.
- choking- illnesses- asthma- electrocution- shock- drowning- heart attack- allergic reactions- drugs- emphysema- bronchitis- croup- hyperventilation
Define asthma.
a condition that narrows the breathing passages and makes it difficult to breathe, caused by a spasm of the muscle lining in the bronchi.
List the signs and symptoms of asthma.
- wheezing- difficulty breathing- painful breathing
List the treatments for asthma.
- medications (inhaler, etc.)- fresh air
Define bronchitis.
a disease resulting in inflammation of the lining of the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles.
List the signs and symptoms of bronchitis.
- persistent cough- chest tightness- difficulty breathing
List the treatments for bronchitis.
- antibiotics
Define anaphylactic shock.
a severe allergic reaction that can restrict and swell a person's chest cavity and cause death.
List the causes of anaphylactic shock.
- insect stings- certain foods- medication
List the symptoms of anaphylactic shock.
- chest tightness- swelling of throat, face, and neck- difficulty breathing- dizziness- confusion
List the treatments for anaphylactic shock.
- injection of epinephrine, followed by the activation of EMS
Define croup.
a common viral illness in children that causes swelling of the tissues around the vocal cords, characterized by a "seal bark" type of cough.
List the treatments for croup.
- fresh cool air- steamy bathroom
Define epiglottitis.
a bacterial infection that causes severe inflammation of the epiglottis.
What are the signs of epiglottitis?
- appear ill- fever- sore throat- the need to sit up in order to breathe- drooling- difficulty swallowing
What are the treatments for epiglottitis?
- antibiotics
Define hyperventilation.
occurs when breathing is faster than normal, imbalance of oxygen and carbon dioxide, occurs in nervous people, people who are in shock and tense.
List the treatments for hyperventilation.
- relax the victim
Describe general respiratory distress care.
Call 911.Help victim rest comfortably.Monitor ABC's (airway, breathing, and circulation).Keep victim from overheating or chilling.Assist victim in taking medications.
Respiratory distress can lead to _____.
respiratory arrest, body system deterioration, cardiac arrest, or death.
List the two types of choking.
anatomical & mechanical.
Describe the techniques used to stop choking.
5 back blows5 abdominal thrusts
List the symptoms of a heart attack.
- chest pain- chest heaviness- pale skin- weak pulse- nausea- vomiting- pain radiating to left arm- indigestion- shortness of breath- sweating
Describe proper heart attack care.
Call 911.Rest victim in comfortable position. Give victim nitroglycerin under tongue if available (1 every 3 minutes).Monitor ABC's (airway, breathing, and circulation).
Describe adult CPR guidelines.
- 2 hands on sternum- compress 1 1/2 inches to 2 inches- 30:2 compression to breaths ratio- 5 cycles in 2 minutes.
Describe child CPR guidelines.
- 1 hand on chest- rescue breathing rate is one every 3 seconds- compress 1 inch to 1 1/2 inches- 5 cycles in 2 minutes.- 30:2 compression to breaths ratio
Describe infant CPR guidelines.
- 2 fingers- rescue breathing rate is one every 3 seconds - mouth covers over mouth and nose during rescue breathing- compress 1/2 inch to 1 inch- 5 cycles in 2 minutes.
Describe the adult chain of survival.
- early activation of EMS- early CPR- rapid defribrillation- advanced life support- post-cardiac arrest care
Describe the pediatric chain of survival
- prevention of arrest- early CPR- rapid activation of EMS- advanced life support- post-cardiac arrest care
When do you stop CPR?
The rescuer should try not to stop. However, he or she may if:- he or she becomes so exhausted they cannot continue- someone of equal or greater training comes to take over- his or her personal safety is in danger (as in the scene is not safe)- the victim is pronounced dead by a medical doctor
List some of the causes of cardiac arrest.
- drugs- respiratory arrest- drowning- electrocution- weak heart- suffocation- firearm injuries- poison- genetic history factors
Define clotting.
process which blood thickens at a wound site to seal a hole or tear and stop bleeding.
Define direct pressure.
pressure applied on a wound to control bleeding
Define hemorrhage.
loss of a large amount of blood in a short period of time.
List the signs of internal bleeding.
- discoloration- tenderness- swollen, hard tissues- anxiety- restlessness- rapid breathing- cool, moist, pale skin- nausea- vomiting- excessive thirst- declining level of consciousness
Describe proper closed wound care.
Apply direct pressure.Apply cold pack.Call 911 if severe.
Describe minor open wound care.
Wash out.Apply sterile dressing with direct pressure.Apply antibiotic ointment.
Describe major open wound care.
DO NOT WASH.Apply clean dressing with direct pressure. Bandage. Call 911.
Describe care given for wounds caused by embedded objects.
Do NOT remove object unless it is preventing breathing.Use bulky bandages. Be careful not to further move object.Control bleeding.Call 911.
List some of the causes of burns.
- heat- chemicals- electricity- solar radiation.
List the signs and symptoms of first degree burns.
- red, dry skin- area is painful- area is swollen (superficial)
List the signs and symptoms of second degree burns.
- red, wet, skin- open and closed blisters- skin spotted and blotchy- area is painful- area is swollen- area is deep
List the signs and symptoms of third degree burns.
- brown or charred skin- tissue underneath appear white- painfulmay be life threatening
List the critical burn locations.
- face- hands- feet- genitals- airway
Describe proper burn care.
Stop burning process (extinguish fire).Cool the burned area. Cover the burned area with a bandage.Minimize shock.Call 911 if third degree burn.
Describe Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
a serious tick borne disease caused by wood or dog ticks
List the signs and symptoms of Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
- spotted rash on ankles or wrists that spreads- fevers- chills- severe headaches- joint and muscle aches. early treatment is important because victim could die of kidney failure
List the signs and symptoms of Lyme disease.
- tick bite- red rash (with bull's eye appearance)- fevers- chills- headaches- fatigue- flu-like symptomscontracted by deer ticks
List the signs and symptoms of stings and bites.
- stinger present- bite marks- pain- local swelling- rash- hives- nausea- difficulty breathing- itchiness
Describe proper care for stings and bites.
Remove stinger by scraping with fingernail or credit card. Only use tweezers with ticks. Wash wound and cover with bandage.Apply ice.Watch for allergic reactions.
List the signs and symptoms of spider bites.
- bite marks- sharp pain (black widow)- swelling and blistering (brown recluse)- pain- cramping- nausea- vomiting- difficulty breathing / swallowing- sweating- irregular heartbeat
Describe proper care for spider bites.
Call 911 as soon as possible.Antivenin will be needed
List the signs and symptoms of snake bites.
- fang bite marks- pain- burning- swelling- tingling- numbness
Describe proper care for snake bites.
Wash.Apply ice and immobilize the body part. Call 911.Antivenin will be needed if pit viper bite
Describe proper jellyfish sting care.
Soak in vinegar or alcohol, or apply a baking soda paste made with water.
Describe proper stingray sting care.
Immobilize body part.Soak in warm water until pain is gone. Call 911 if severe.
List the signs and symptoms of tetanus.
- irritability- headache- fever- painful muscle spasmsSymptoms occur 3 to 5 days after bites/cuts. Call 911.
List some of the causes of head, neck, and back injuries.
- fall from height greater than one's own height- motor vehicle accidents - blunt forces- violence- lightning
List the symptoms of a head injury.
- change in level of consciousness- pain- pressure- tingling sensation- partial / complete paralysis- blood from ears / nose- seizures- vomiting- nausea- impaired vision- headache- loss of balance- bruising around head / eyes
When should you not use inline stabilization?
- if victim's head is severely angled- victim has pain, pressure, or muscle spasms- there is resistance when attempting to move head
List the parts of the spine from top to bottom.
- cervix- thoracic vertebrae- lumbar- sacrum- coccyx
Describe proper eye injury care.
Keep on back.Do not remove any embedded objects.Apply dressing around objectStabilize object with cup.Call 911.
List some common ear injuries.
- soft tissue damage - damage to eardrums- loss of hearing
Describe proper ear injury care.
Do NOT apply direct pressure. Cover lightly.Call 911.
scalp injury care
control bleeding with direct pressure, DO NOT apply direct pressure if skull feels spongy (indicates skull fracture).
Describe proper cheek injury care.
If bleeding occurs inside of the mouth, place dressings inside and apply direct pressure.Remove any embedded objects ONLY if impairs breathing. Pull object in same direction as it entered.Apply pressure outside of mouth.Sit and lean victim forward.
List the causes of a concussion.
- force to head
List the signs of a concussion.
- temporary impairment of brain- loss of consciousness- loss of memory- severe headaches
Describe proper concussion care.
Rest.Get medical help.There is a possibility that it could be severe
Describe proper nose injury care.
Sit victim with head forward and pinch noseApply ice.Call 911 if bleeding is caused by high blood pressure.
chest injury signs and symptoms
breathing difficulty, severe pain, obvious deformity, bruising, discoloration of skin, coughing up blood.
chest injury general care
posistion in comfortable way to aid breathing, if ribs are broken bind arm to injured side.
sucking chest wound care
apply occlusive dressing, treat other life threatening injuries, keep one corner of dressing open.
abdominal injury signs and symptoms
severe pain, external bleeding, nausea, vomitting, bruising, pale ashen moist skin, weakness, thirst, rigid abdomen, organs protruding from abs.
abdominal injury general care
lie victim on back, bend knees to reduce pain, call 911, control bleeding.
pelvis injury signs and symptons
protruding organs, pain, bruising, bleeding, severed body parts... same care as abdominal injuries.
soft splint
blankets, towels, pillows, slings.
rigid splints
boards, metal strips, folded magazines.
anatomic splints
refers to the use of the body like arms, legs.
commerical splint
traction with pulleys and weights.
slings and cravats
triangular bandages used to support arms, forearms, dressings, and bandaids.
splinting key things
support injured thing in posistion you found it, cover open wounds, check area above and below color/warmth/feeling, apply splint above and below, sling into place not directly over injury, check fingers/toes for circulation, elevate if possible, rest, apply ice, prevent shock.
upper extremities
forearm, phalanges, carpals, metacarpals.
shoulder injuries
clavicle, scalpula, humerous, sprains, fractures, dislocation of shoulder.
shoulder injury general care
control bleeding, support in comfortable posistion, if away from body use pillow to support under arm, create sling splint, ice, call 911 if broken.
arm injuries
humerous, radius, ulna, fractures.
arm injury general care
immobolize from shoulder to elbow, control bleeding, sling, if elbow injured DO NOT MOVE, call 911 if you can't find pulse.
lower extremity injuries
femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal, metatarsals, phalanges.
femur fraction key signs
leg turned outward, muscle contracted, leg appears shorter, swollen, possible external bleeding.
lower extremity general care
control any bleeding, immobolize, rest in comfortable posistion, elevate if possible, support leg, monitor color/warmth/feeling, call 911 if suspected broken.
knee injuries
sprains, cuts, bruises, fractures, dislocations.
knee injury general care
control bleeding, support/eleveate knee, ice, rest, splint if it can be straightened.
ankle and foot injuries
sprains, fractures, tears, strains.
ankle and foot injury general care
control bleeding, immobolize with soft splint, check toes for warmth/feeling/color, elevate, ice, call 911 if suspected broken.
fainting (syncope)
temporary reduction of blood flow to the brain.
fainting signs and symptoms
complete loss of consciousness, temporary reduction of blood to head, collapse.
fainting general care
call 911, posistion on flat surface, monitor abc's, loosen clothing, elevate legs.
Define stroke.
disruption of blood flow to brain that can cause death or serious brain damage
List the signs and symptoms of a stroke.
- altered level of consciousness- look/feels ill- sudden weakness- numbness- difficulty speaking or being understood- blurred vision- unequal pupils- severe headache- ringing in ears- drooling- loss of bladder control
Describe proper stroke care.
Call 911 fast.Monitor ABC's (airway, breathing, and circulation).Clear fluids from mouth.Reassure and comfort.Don't give food.
List the two types of stroke.
ischemic (caused by blockage) and hemorrhagic (caused by bleeding)
List ways to prevent a stroke.
- control blood pressure- control diet- do not smoke- exercise regularly- control diabetes
Define diabetes.
a condition where the pancreas does not produce insulin, which helps with glucose buildup.
List some key facts about type 1 diabetes.
- also known as juvenile diabetes- insulin dependent diabetes- body produces little or no insulin- must inject insulin into the body.
List some key facts about type 2 diabetes.
- also known as adult onset diabetes- non-insulin dependent- body produces insulin but not enough- is more common than type 1- can be controlled by diet
Define hypoglycemia.
a condition where the insulin level is too high and sugar level is too low.
Define hyperglycemia.
a condition where the insulin level too low and sugar is too high.
List the signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia.
- flushed skin- hot, dry skin- looks ill- sweet, fruity body odor- irregular breathing- abnormal pulse
Describe proper diabetes care.
If conscious give sugary foods or drinks. If loss of consciousness call 911.
List key facts about seizures.
- sudden loss of body control - can be chronic called epilepsy- caused by fevers (febrile)- preceded by by aura,- feels and looks ill.
List the signs and symptoms of seizures.
- changes in level of consciousness- convulsions- fluids from mouth
Describe proper seizure care.
Allow seizure to occur. Protect victim from injuring self.Monitor ABC's (airway, breathing, and circulation). Clear mouth of fluids by positioning on side. Call 911 (especially if seizure is repeated, or if victim is pregnant, is in water, or has never had them before).
The effects of poisons depend on _____.
- type/amount of substance- how and where the poison entered- time elapsed- weight, size, and age of victim.
List some clues of poisoning.
- vomit- open drug containers- drug paraphernalia- discoloration of ski- irregular breathing- blue lips- consciousness- alcohol bottles- crushed plants- ill-prepared food
List the signs and symptoms of poisoning.
- nausea- vomiting- chest pain- abdominal pain- dizziness- sweating- seizures- skin discoloration- diarrhea- burns around mouth- headaches
What is used to induce vomiting?
syrup of ipecac
What does activated charcoal do?
neutralizes stomach and absorbs poisons.
When should vomiting NOT be induced?
- victim is unconscious- victim is having seizures- victim is pregnant in the last trimester- victim has ingested corrosive substance
What are the 4 ways one can be poisoned?
- ingestion- absorption- inhalation- injection
List some absorbed poisons.
- poison ivy- poison oak- poison sumac- wet and dry chemicals- lawn fertilizers
Describe proper absorbed poison care.
Wash area with calamine lotion.Take Benadryl or corticosteroids.
List some ingested poisons.
- bacterial and chemical poisons in improperly prepared foods
Describe proper ingested poison care.
Prevent by properly cooking and handling food.Give victim antibiotics.
List some inhaled poisons.
- carbon monoxide- paints - glues- gasoline
Describe proper inhaled poison care.
Get to fresh air.Treat breathing conditions.Call 911 if victim becomes or is unconscious.
List the signs and symptoms of frostbite.
- cold, discolored skin- lack of feeling- waxy look of skin- blisters- can be just nip, superficial, or deep.
Describe proper frostbite care.
Handle very carefully.Do NOT rub area.Place in warm water.Bandage loosely; if fingers and toes, place gauze in between each phalange.
List the signs and symptoms of hypothermia.
- anything below 95 degrees- shivering- slow irregular heart beat- numbness- apathy- change in level of consciousness- breathing difficulties
Describe proper hypothermia care.
Remove wet clothing. Call 911. Gradually rewarm by using dry blankets and giving warm liquids if conscious.
List the signs and symptoms of heat cramps.
- heavy sweating- rapid onset- pain- muscle spasms
Describe proper heat cramp care.
Rest in a cool place.Drink cool water.Stretch muscles.
List the signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion.
- cool, moist, pale skin- headaches- nausea- dizziness- weakness
List the signs and symptoms of heat stroke.
- sweating stops- red, hot, dry skin- rapid rise temperature- rapid or weak pulse- changes in consciousness- body systems begin to failcan lead to cardiac arrest
Describe proper heat stroke and exhaustion care.
Places ice packs under knees and wrists. Fan and cool body in any way possible.Call 911 if condition worsens.
List the signs of a heart attack.
- chest discomfort (uncomfortable pressure, squeezing, fullness, or pain)- discomfort in other areas of upper body (one or both arms, the back, neck jaw or abdomen)- shortness of breath - cold sweat, nausea or light-headedness
List the signs of shock.
- weak, faint or dizzy - nauseous or thirsty - pale or grayish skin- restless, agitated or confused- cold and clammy to the touch
Describe proper shock care.
Help victim lie on back.Cover victim to keep the victim warm. Elevate the victim's legs (with a pillow).
Where do you check a pulse of an adult?
carotid artery (neck)
Where do you check a pulse for an infant?
brachial artery (upper arm)
What separates the outer ear from the middle ear?
tympanic membrane (eardrum)
What does the tympanic membrane do?
vibrates the sound waves hit it and transmits the sound waves to the middle ear
What is the middle ear?
the small cavity behind the tympanic membrane that contains 3 bones (the malleus, the incus, and the stapes).
What is the pinna or auricle?
the visible part of the ear that leads to the auditory canal.
What is the auditory canal?
place where sound waves travel though in order to hit the tympanic membrane (eardrum).
What are the 3 main layers of the eye?
-sclera & cornea-choroid coat -retina
From the mouth to the lungs, what is the order of organs?
- pharynx - epiglottis - larynx (voice box)- part of esophagus - trachea - part of esophagus
first aid
immediate care
person responds
introduce yourself, ask to help
person unresponsive
assume they want help
step 1 in assessing the scene
make sure scene is safe
why would you move someone?
victim in danger or it's needed to to provide care
step 2 in assessing the scene
look for others who can help and phones. call 911
step 3 in assessing the scene
determine how many people injured and what happened
step 4 in assessing the scene
tell EMS specifically where you are
common PPE for first aid
gloves, eye protection, mask
step 1: contact w blood
take gloves off
step 2: contact w blood
wash hands ASAP and contact area w soap and water
step 3: contact w blood
rinse eyes, nose, or mouth if it got in this area
step 4: contact w blood
tell your supervisor
step 1: adult Chain of Survival
recognize emergency and call for help
step 2: adult Chain of Survival
early CPR w emphasis on compressions
step 3: adult Chain of Survival
rapid AED use
step 4: adult Chain of Survival
effective advanced care
step 5: adult Chain of survival
coordinated care afterward
step 1: finding the problem
check the scene
step 2: finding the problem
tap person and shout are you okay
step 3: finding the problem
check if person is breathing
step 4: finding the problem
look for obvious signs of injury
step 5: finding the problem
look for medical jewelry
step 1: after emergency
give all info to EMS about victim
step 2: after emergency
fill out report
step 3: after emergency
protect victims privacy
fast or slow breaths, trouble w breathing, noisy, can only make sounds or say few words between breaths
breathing problems
2 parts to inhaler
medicine canister and mouthpiece
step 1: using and assembling inhaler
shake medicine
step 2: using and assembling inhaler
put medicine canister into mouthpeice
step 3: using and assembling inhaler
remove cap from mouthpiece
step 4: using and assembling inhaler
attach spacer if available
step 5: using and assembling inhaler
tilt head back and have them breathe out slowly
step 6: using and assembling inhaler
put inhaler in mouth
step 7: using and assembling inhaler
push down on top of medicine canister. have person breath in slowly and deeply as you do this
step 8: using and assembling inhaler
have person hold breath for 10 secs and breathe out slowly
step 1: choking
ask are you choking
step 2: choking
get behind person. wrap arms around person.
step 3: choking
make fist w one hand
step 4: choking
put thumb of fist above belly button, well below breast bone.
step 5: choking
grasp fist tight w other hand. give quick upward thrusts
step 6: choking
give thrusts until object expels
what do you to a pregnant or obese person who is choking?
follow the same steps except put arms under armpits and hands on lower half of breast bone and pull straight back
step 1: choking victim becomes unresponsive
check if needs CPR
step 2: choking victim becomes unresponise
open airway after 30 compressions to see if object is in mouth. retrieve object.
step 3: choking victim becomes unresponsive
continure CPR til speaks, moves, breaths, or EMS arrives
where are epinephrine pens injected?
side of thigh about halfway between hip and knee
step 1: epinephrine pen
get prescribed pen
step 2: epinephrine pen
take safety cap off. follow instuctions on pen.
step 3: epinephrine pen
hold pen in fist. determine which side has the needle.
step 4: epinephrine pen
push needle into thigh
step 5: epinephrine pen
hold pen in place for 10 secs
step 6: epinephrine pen
pull needle straight out
stuffy nose, sneezing, itching around eyes and skin, hives
mild allergic reaction
touble breathing, swelling of tongue and face, signs of shock
severe allergic reaction
step 1: severe allergic reaction
make sure scene safe
step 2: severe allergic reaction
call 911 and get first aid kit
step 3: severe allergic reaction
help person get and use pen if responsive
step 4: severe allergic reaction
if unresponsive and allowed, give injection
step 5: severe allergic reaction
rub injection spot for 10 secs
step 6: severe allergic reaction
dispose pen properly
step 7: severe allergic reaction
note time of injection
step 8: severe allergic reaction
give CPR if needed
chest discomfort, discomfort in upper body, shortness of breath, cold sweat, nausea, light-headedness
heart attack
step 1: heart attack
make sure person is calm and resting
step 2: heart attack
call 911
step 3: heart attack
get first aid kit and AED
step 4: heart attack
if has no allergy, serious bleeding, and no signs of stroke, give asprin
step 5: heart attack
give CPR if needed
step 1: dizzy and responsive
make sure scene safe
step 2: dizzy and responsive
help person lie flat on floor
step 3: dizzy and responsive
call 911
step 1: post fainting
ask person to stay down until can sit up and feel normal
step 2: post fainting
look for injuries if fell
step 3: post fainting
call 911
What are the 5 parts to the AHA Chain of Survival?
1.Recognition & activation of EMS2.CPR3.Rapid defibrillation 4.Effective advanced life support5.Post cardiac arrest care
Normal respiration rate for adults
12-20 Breaths per min
Normal respiration rate for children
15-30 bpm
Normal respiration rate for infants
25-50 bpm
What is the circulatory system made of?
blood, heart, and blood vessels
Arterial direction of blood flow
away from heart
What happens when an artery is cut?
blood spurts out
Where is the carotid artery?
in the neck - can be palpated
Where is the femoral artery?
in the thigh (palpated in groin area)
Where is the brachial artery? When is it used?
Inner part of upper arm (between elbow & armpit) -- used with infants
What is low blood pressure?
hypotension
What is plasma?
liquid part of blood-- mostly water
What do red blood cells do?
Carry oxygen to organs
What causes shock?
inadequate circulation
What are signs of shock?
pale/cyanotic skin, cool, clammy skin, rapid pulse/breathing, restlessness, anxiety, mental dullness, nausea/vomiting, low/decreasing blood pressure, below-normal body temp
What does the cerebrum control?
sensation, thought, associative memory
Where is the sight center located?
occipital lobe
What directs smell and hearing?
temporal lobes (side of head)
What is the autonomic nervous system?
processes not controlled by conscious mind
What are the 5 parts of the spinal column?
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx
What is the lowest part of the sternum (breastbone) called?
xiphoid process
What is the thorax made of?
ribs and sternum
What is a joint?
where 2 or more bones meet/join.
What can be a sign of nerve injury?
loss of muscle tone
What are the 2 layers of the skin?
epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer)
What does red skin generally mean?
excess circulation to part of body
What does white(pale) skin generally mean?
extreme blood loss, shock, hypothermia
What does blue skin generally mean?
lack of oxygen
what does yellow skin mean?
liver disease/failure
What temperature/moisture of the skin is a sign of heat stroke?
hot and dry skin
What temperature/moisture level of the skin is a sign of heat exhaustion and also shock?
cool and moist (clammy skin)
How can you check blood circulation?
capillary refill test
How does heart attack occur?
blood supply is reduced/stopped to the heart-- usually caused by a clot in one or more coronal arteries
What is cardiac arrest(ventricular fibrillation)?
the heart stops beating
How many hands are used for child CPR? How deep?
One or two hands. About 2 inches
How many hands are used for infant CPR? How deep?
Use 2 fingers. About 1.5 inches
What is the optimum rate of compressions?
100 compressions/minute
What are signs of a severe airway obstruction?
Difficulty breathing, weak cough, inability to speak/breathe, bluish gray skin, fingernail beds, or inside of mouth (cyanosis)
How to remove airway obstruction from responsive infant?
Infant on knee with head, neck, and back supported. 5 back blows. Turn infant over and give 5 chest compressions
How does the heart work?
2 chambers on left side of heart get oxygenated blood from lungs, then sends to the rest of the bodyveins bring oxygen rich blood from lungs to heartsee figure 6-2 pg 81 of big cpr book
What is ventricular tachycardia?
heart beats too fast to pump blood effectively
Medication patches
must be removed before using AED
When does shock occur?
tissues in the body do not receive enough oxygen rich blood
What is anaphylaxis?
extreme allergic reaction
What is pulmonary edema?
resulting buildup of fluid in lungs
What is a hemorrhage?
large amount of bleeding in a short time
What is arterial bleeding?
Most serious type of bleeding. Blood spurts out. Unlikely to clot.
What characterizes venous bleeding?
flows from vein steadily. Easier to control
What is the largest artery in the body?
the aorta
What is an avulsion?
piece of skin or underlying tissue that is torn loose, hanging from the body, or completely removed
What are symptoms of a 2nd degree burn?
blisters, swelling, severe pain
What are symptoms of a 3rd degree burn?
leathery,waxy, pearly gray skin that may appear charred. Dry appearance and feels no pain
Care for chemical burns
1. Brush dry powders from skin and flush body portion with water2. remove contaminated clothing3.flush for 20 mins or longer4. cover burn with dry,sterile dressing
What are some symptoms of a skull fracture?
pain, deformity of skull, bleeding from ears/nose, watery CSF coming from ear or nose, raccoon eyes appearing hours after injury, Battle's sign (discoloration behind ears)
What are some symptoms of a concussion?
LOC, headache, nausea/vomiting, decreased coordination, confusion, seizures, disproportionate pupils, extreme emotions
contusion
direct blow to head causing bruise to brain
What is an edema?
swelling of the brain
Signs of sucking chest wound
blood bubbling from chest, sucking sound during inhalations
Care for sucking chest wound
1.use something to stop air from entering chest cavity (plastic wrap or gloved hand) 2. tape into place leaving ONE end untaped 3. lay victim on uninjured side4. if victim appears to have trouble breathing or is getting worse, remove cover, let air escape, and reapply
Care for protruding organs
1. have victim lay in comfortable position with legs towards abdomen2.cover protruding organs with moist, sterile dressing, or a piece of plastic3. treat for shock
What is a sprain?
joint is twisted or stretched beyond normal range of motion
Signs of sprain
pain, pain prevents victim from moving joint, swelling, skin around joint may be discolored
What is a strain?
pulled muscle
Signs of strain
sudden sharp pain in muscle, extreme tenderness, swelling, weakness and loss of function, stiffness and pain in movement, discoloration after a few days, feels popping or pulling sensation
Care for sprains & strains
RICE: rest, ice, compression, elevation -- 20 minute intervals
What is the difference between heart attack and cardiac arrest?
Heart attack: 1 or more arteries delivering blood to the heart is blockedCardiac arrest: either heart stops being (asystole) or the ventricles suddenly develop a rapid irregular rhythm (ventricular fibrillation)
Heart attack symptoms
chest pain, discomfort in upper body, shortness of breath, cold sweat, nausea, lightheadedness
Care for heart attack
1. 9112. cpr if not breathing3.place person into comfortable position (usually sitting)4. give aspirin if possible
What is an angina?
pain in the chest that spreads to shoulders, neck, arms, and other parts of the body caused by inadequate blood supply to the heart
Types of stroke
1. Ischemic stroke: blood vessels to brain become clogged with fatty deposits (plaque)-- cuts off blood flow to brain2. Hemorrhagic stroke: blood vessel rupture in or near brain-- associated with severe headache
Symptoms of stroke
1.weakness, numbness, paralysis of face, arm, or leg on one side of the body2. blurred vision3. dizziness4.sudden, severe headache
What is type 1 diabetes?
person needs external insulin
What is type 2 diabetes?
caused by bad diet over time -- not enough insulin produced
Treatment for frostbite
1.put victim into warm place2. remove wet or restricting clothing3. place frostbitten area in warm water if there is NO RISK of being frostbitten again
What are symptoms of heat exhaustion?
heavy perspiration, thirst, fatigue, flu-like symptoms, shortness of breath, fast heart rate
Treatment for heat exhaustion
1. move to cool area2. give liquids: cool water, lightly salted water, sports drink3. raise legs4. remove excess clothing5. cool water spray or towel on neck, armpits, and back of neck
What are symptoms of heat stroke?
extremely hot and dry skin, confusion, altered mental state, disorientation
Treatment for heat stroke
1. move to cool area2. remove clothing down to underwear3. keep head slightly elevated4. 9115. do anything to cool victim down immediately: ice immersion
protoplasm
the basic substance of all life and it forms the basic unit of structure and function in all living things: the cell
types of diseases
congenital, inherited, infectious, degenerative
cell membrane
the outer protective cover- ing of the cell. It is also called the plasma membrane or plasmalemma. It is semiperme- able; that is, it allows certain substances to enter and leave the cell while preventing the passage of other substances.
cytoplasm
a semifluid inside the cell but out- side the nucleus. It contains water (70-90 per- cent), proteins, lipids (fats), carbohydrates, minerals, and salts. It is the site for all chemical reactions that take place in the cell, such as pro- tein synthesis (formation) and cellular respira- tion.
organelles
cell structures that help a cell to function, are located in the cytoplasm. The main organelles are the nucleus, mitochon- dria, ribosomes, lysosomes, centrioles, Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum.
nucleus
a mass in the cytoplasm. It is sepa- rated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear mem-brane that contains pores to allow substances to pass between the nucleus and cytoplasm. It is often called the "brain" of the cell because it controls many cell activities and is important in the process of mitosis or cell division.
nucleolus
one or more small, round bodies located inside the nucleus, and important in cell reproduction. Ribosomes, made of ribo- nucleic acid (RNA) and protein, are manufac- tured in the nucleolus. The ribosomes move from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where they aid in the synthesis (production) of protein. They can exist freely in the cytoplasm or be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
chromatin
located in the nucleus and made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein. During cell reproduction, the chromatin con- denses to form rodlike structures called chro- mosomes. A human cell has 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs. Each chromosome contains between 30,000 to 45,000 genes, the struc- tures that carry inherited characteristics. Each gene has a specific and unique sequence of approximately 1,000 base pairs of DNA; the DNA sequence carries the genetic coding that allows for exact duplication of the cell. Because the DNA sequence on genes is unique for each individual, it is sometimes used as an identifi- cation tool similar to fingerprints, but much more exact.
genome
is the total mass of genetic instruction humans inherit from their parents. It consists of strings of DNA nucleo- tides. Human beings have about three billion nucleotides in their genome. The order of the nucleotides on the DNA sequences provides instructions for the body to build all of its parts, everything from permanent structures such as teeth and brain cells to short-lived substances such as blood and hormones.
centrosome
located in the cytoplasm and near the nucleus. It contains two centrioles. During mitosis, or cell division, the centrioles separate. Thin cytoplasmic spindle fibers form between the centrioles and attach to the chro- mosomes. This creates an even division of the chromosomes in the two new cells.
mitochondria
rod-shaped organelles lo- cated throughout the cytoplasm. These are often called the "furnaces" or "powerhouses" of the cell because they break down carbohy- drates, proteins, and fats to produce adeno- sine triphosphate (ATP), the major energy source of the cell. A cell can contain just 1 to more than 1,000 mitochondria, depending on how much energy the cell requires.
golgi apparatus
a stack of membrane lay- ers located in the cytoplasm. This structure produces, stores, and packages secretions for discharge from the cell. Cells of the salivary, gastric, and pancreatic glands have large num- bers of Golgi apparatus.
Endoplasmic reticulum
a fine network of tubular structures located in the cytoplasm. This network allows for the transport of mate- rials into and out of the nucleus, and also aids in the synthesis and storage of proteins. Rough endoplasmic reticulum contains ribosomes, which are the sites for protein synthesis (pro- duction). Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not contain ribosomes and is not present in all cells. It assists with cholesterol synthesis, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs.
vacuoles
pouchlike structures found throughout the cytoplasm that have a vacuo- lar membrane with the same structure as the cell membrane. They are filled with a watery substance, stored food, or waste products.
lysosomes
oval or round bodies found throughout the cytoplasm. These structures contain digestive enzymes that digest and destroy old cells, bacteria, and foreign materi- als, an important function of the body's immune system. Lysosomes also fuse with stored food vacuoles to convert the food to a form that can be used by the mitochondria to produce ATP (energy).
Pinocytic vesicles
pocketlike folds in the cell membrane. These folds allow large mole- cules such as proteins and fats to enter the cell. When such molecules are inside the cell, the folds close to form vacuoles or bubbles in the cytoplasm. When the cell needs energy, the vesicles fuse with lysosomes to allow the proteins and fats to be digested and used by the mitochondria to produce ATP (energy).
mitosis
cells divine into two identical cells, a form of asexual reproduction
muscle cells
only reproduce every few years
nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord
do not reproduce after birth
meiosis
sex cells, gametes, divide by a process known as this; this process uses two separate cell division to produce 4 new cells
mitosis phases
1. prophase2. metaphase3. anaphase4. telophase5. daughter cells division completes
meiosis I phase
1. prophase I2. metaphase I3. anaphase I4. telophase I5. daughter cells division completes.
meiosis II phase
1. prophase II2. metaphase II3. anaphase II4. telophase II5. daughter cells division completes. each end up with half the original number of chromosomes
order of groups
atoms or ions to molecules to organelles to cells to tissues to organs to organ systems to organism
edema
swelling of the tissues, occurs when there is an excess amount of fluid
epithelial tissue
covers the surface of the body and is the main tissue in the skin.
connective tissue
is the supporting fabric of organs and other body parts. There are two main classes of connective tissue: soft and hard. One type of soft connective tissue is adipose, or fatty, tissue, which stores fat as a food reserve or source of energy, insulates the body, fills the area between tissue fibers, and acts as padding. A second type of soft connective tissue is fibrous connective tissue, such as ligaments and tendons, which help hold body structures together. Hard connective tissue includes cartilage and bone. Cartilage is a tough, elastic material that is found between the bones of the spine and at the end of long bones. It acts as a shock absorber and allows for flexibility. It is also found in the nose, ears, and larynx, or "voice box," to provide form or shaping. Bone is similar to car- tilage but has calcium salts, nerves, and blood ves- sels; it is frequently called osseous tissue. Bone helps form the rigid structure of the human body. Blood and lymph are classified as liquid connec- tive tissue, or vascular tissue. Blood carries nutri- ents and oxygen to the body cells and carries metabolic waste away from cells. Lymph trans- ports tissue fluid, proteins, fats, and other materi- als from the tissues to the circulatory system. it also supports and connects.
nerve tissue
is made up of special cells called neurons. It controls and coordinates body activities by transmitting messages throughout the body. The nerves, brain, and spinal cord are composed of nerve tissue.
muscle tissue (cardiac)
produces power and move- ment by contraction of muscle fibers. There are three main kinds of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and visceral (smooth). Skeletal muscle attaches to the bones and provides for movement of the body. Cardiac muscle causes the heart to beat. Visceral muscle is present in the walls of the respiratory, digestive, urinary tract, and blood vessels. it also moves and protects
epithelium tissue
secretes and protects
atoms or ions
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
molecules
sugars, proteins, water
organelles
mitochondrion, nucleus, ribosme
cells
epithelial cell, nerve cell, muscle cell
tissues
epithelial tissue, nervous tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue
organs
lung, brain, stomach, kidney
organ systems
respiratory, nervous, digestive, circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, muscular, lymphatic, urinary, endocrine, reproductive systems
muscle cells
...
integumentary system
function: protects body from injury, infection, and dehydration; helps regulate body temperature; eliminates some wasters; produces vitamin Dmajor organs: skin, sweat and oil glands, nails, and hair
skeletal system
function: creates framework of body, protects internal organs, produces cells, acts as a lever for musclesmajor organs: bones and cartilage
muscular system
function: produces movement, protects internal organs, produces body heat, maintains posturemajor organs: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles
nervous system
function: coordinates and controls body activitiesmajor organs: nerves, brain, spinal cord
special senses
function: allows the body to rect to environment by providing sight, hearing, taste, smell, and balancemajor organs: eye, ear, tongue, nose, general sense receptors
circulatory system
function: carries oxygen and nutrients to body cells; carries waster products away from cells; helps produce cells to fight infectionmajor organs: heart, blood vessels, blood, spleen
lymphatic system
function: carries some tissue fluid and waste to blood, assists with fighting infectionmajor organs: lymph nodes, lymph vessels, spleen, tonsils, and thymus gland
respiratory system
function: breathes in oxygen and elongates carbon dioxidemajor organs: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
digestive system
function: digests food physically and chemically, transports food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates wastesmajor organs: mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
urinary system
function: filters blood to maintain fluid and electrolyte balance in the body, produces and eliminates wastesmajor organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
endocrine system
function: produces and secrets hormones to regular body processesmajor organs: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and thymus glands; pancreas, ovaries, testes
reproduction system
function: provides for reproductionmajor organs:Male: tests, epididymis, vas deferent, ejaculatory duct, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, urethraFemale: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, breast
body planes
transverse, median plane, frontal plane, proximal
transverse plane
superior, inferior, cranial, caudal
medial plane
also called misdasgittal, medial, and lateral
frontal plane
also called coronal plane, ventral = anterior, posterior = dorsal
proximal
also known as distal, used to describe the location of the extremities such as the arms and legs
body cavities
are spaces within the body that contain vital organsthere are two main body cavities: the dorsal or posterior cavity and the ventral or anterior cavity
dorsal cavity
is divided into 2 sections: cranial cavity which contains the brain and the spinal cavity which contains the spinal cord
ventral cavities
are larger than the dorsal cavities and is separated into 2 distinct cavities by the diaphragm
thoracic cavity
is located in the chest and contains the esophagus, trachea, bronchi, lungs, heart, and large blood vessels
abdominal cavity
or abdominopelvic cavity is divided into an upper part and a lower partThe upper abdominal cavity contains the stomach, small intestine, most of the large intestine, appendix, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and spleen. The lower abdominal cavity, or pel- vic cavity, contains the urinary bladder, the reproductive organs, and the last part of the large intestine. The kidneys and adrenal glands are technically located outside the abdominal cavity because they are behind the peritoneal mem- brane (peritoneum) that lines the abdominal cavity. This area is called the retroperitoneal space.
orbital cavity
eyes
nasal cavity
nose structures
buccal cavity
mouth for the teeth and tongue
abdominal regions
right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).
tissue layers mainly made up of
epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous fascia or hypodermis
epidermis
he outermost layer of skin. This layer is actually made of five smaller layers but no blood vessels or nerve cells. Two main layers are the stratum corneum, the outermost layer, and the stratum germinativum, the innermost layer. The cells of the stratum cor- neum are constantly shed and replaced by new cells from the stratum germinativum.
dermis
also called corium, or "true skin." This layer has a framework of elastic connec- tive tissue and contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, involuntary muscle, sweat and oil glands, and hair follicles. The top of the dermis is covered with papillae, which fit into ridges on the stratum germinativum of the epidermis. These ridges form lines, or stria- tions, on the skin. Because the pattern of ridges is unique to each individual, finger- prints and footprints are often used as meth- ods of identification.
Subcutaneous fascia or hypodermis
the innermost layer. It is made of elastic and fibrous connective tissue and adipose (fatty) tissue, and connects the skin to underlying muscles.
The integumentary system has two main types of glands
sudoriferous and sebaceous
sudoriferous glands
(sweat glands) are coiled tubes that extend through the dermis and open on the surface of the skin at pores. The sweat, or perspiration, eliminated by these glands contains water, salts, and some body wastes. Even though sweat contains body wastes, it is basically odor- less. However, when the sweat interacts with bac- teria on the skin, body odor occurs. The process of perspiration removes excess water from the body and cools the body as the sweat evaporates into the air.
sebaceous glands
are oil glands that usually open onto hair follicles. They pro- duce sebum, an oil that keeps the skin and hair from becoming dry and brittle. Because sebum is slightly acidic, it acts as an antibacterial and anti- fungal secretion to help prevent infections. When an oil gland becomes plugged, the accumulation of dirt and oil results in a blackhead or pimple.
two other parts of the integumentary system are
the hair and the nails
alopecia
baldness
important functions of the integumentary system
⦠protection: It serves as a barrier to the sun's ultraviolet rays and the invasion of pathogens, or germs. It also holds moisture in and pre- vents deeper tissues from drying out.⦠Sensory perception: The nerves in the skin help the body respond to pain, pressure, tempera- ture (heat and cold), and touch sensations⦠Body temperature regulation: The blood ves- sels in the skin help the body retain or lose heat. When the blood vessels dilate (get larger), excess heat from the blood can escape through the skin. When the blood vessels con- strict (get smaller), the heat is retained in the body. The sudoriferous glands also help cool the body through evaporation of perspira- tion.⦠Storage: The skin has tissues for temporary storage of fat, glucose (sugar), water, vitamins, and salts. Adipose (fatty) tissue in the subcu- taneous fascia is a source of energy.â¦Absorption: Certain substances can be absorbed through the skin, such as medica- tions for motion sickness or heart disease and nicotine patches to help stop smoking. The medications are placed on sticky patches and applied to the skin. This is called a transder- mal medication.⦠Excretion: The skin helps the body eliminate salt, a minute amount of waste, and excess water and heat through perspiration.⦠Production: The skin helps in the production of vitamin D by using ultraviolet rays from the sun to form an initial molecule of vitamin D that matures in the liver.
melanin
brownish, black pigment
albino
absence of color pigments
erythema
is a reddish color of the skin that can be caused by either burns or congestion of blood in the vessels
jaundice
a yellow discoloration of the skin, can indicate line in the blood as a result of the liver or gallbladder disease
cyanosis
is a bluish discoloration of the skin caused by insufficient oxygen
skin eruptions
can also indicate disease. The most common eruptions include:⦠Macules: (macular rash) flat spots on the skin, such as freckles⦠Papules: (papular rash) firm, raised areas such as pimples and the eruptions seen in some stages of chickenpox and syphilis⦠Vesicles: blisters, or fluid-filled sacs, such as those seen in chickenpox⦠Pustules: pus-filled sacs such as those seen in acne, or pimples⦠Crusts: areas of dried pus and blood, com- monly called scabs⦠Wheals: itchy, elevated areas with an irregu- lar shape; hives and insect bites are examples⦠Ulcer: a deep loss of skin surface that may extend into the dermis; may cause periodic bleeding and the formation of scars
adult human number of bones
206 bones
skeletal system functions
⦠Framework: bones form a framework to sup- port the body's muscles, fat, and skin⦠Protection: bones surround vital organs to protect them (for example the skull, which surrounds the brain, and the ribs, which pro- tect the heart and lungs)⦠Levers: muscles attach to bones to help pro- vide movement⦠Production of blood cells: bones help produce red and white blood cells and platelets, a pro- cess called hemopoiesis or hematopoiesis⦠Storage: bones store most of the calcium sup- ply of the body in addition to phosphorus and fats
long bones
bones of the extremities, arms and legs, are called this
diaphysis
the long shaft
epiphysis
the 2 extremities or ends are called this
medullary canal
cavity in the diaphysis. it is filled with yellow marrow which is mainly a storage area for fat cells
endosteum
is a membrane that lines the medullary canal and keeps the yellow marrow intact. It also produces some bone growth.
Red marrow
is found in certain bones, such as the vertebrae, ribs, sternum, and cranium, and in the proximal ends of the humerus and femur. It produces red blood cells (erythro- cytes), platelets (thrombocytes), and some white blood cells (leukocytes). Because bone marrow is important in the manufacture of blood cells and is involved with the body's immune response, the red marrow is used to diagnose blood diseases and is sometimes transplanted in people with defective immune systems.
axial skeleton
forms the main trunk of the body and is composed of the skull, spinal column, ribs, and breastbones
appendicular skeleton
forms the extremities and is composed of the shoulder girdle, arm bones, pel- vic girdle, and leg bones.
skull
is composed of the cranial and facial bones
cranium
is the spheri- cal structure that surrounds and protects the rain. It is made of eight bones: one frontal, two parietal, two temporal, one occipital, one eth- moid, and one sphenoid.
fontaneis
spaces called this allow for the enlargement of the skill as the brain growth occurs
facial bones
there are 14 facial bones: 1 mandible (lower jaw), 2 maxilla (upper jaw), 2 zygomatic (cheek), 2 lacrimal (inner aspect of eyes), 5 nasal, and 2 palatine (hard palate or roof of the mouth).
sutures
are areas where the cranial bones have joined together
sinuses
are air spaces in the bones of the skill that act as a resonating chambers for the voice
foramina
are openings in bones that allow nerves and blood vessels to enter or leave the bone.
vertebrae
.The spinal column is composed of 26 bones called vertebrae (figure 7-18). These bones pro- tect the spinal cord and provide support for the head and trunk. They include 7 cervical (neck), 12 thoracic (chest), 5 lumbar (waist), 1 sacrum (back of pelvic girdle), and 1 coccyx (tailbone). Pads of cartilage tissue, called intervertebral disks, separate the vertebrae. The disks act as shock absorbers and permit bending and twisting movements of the vertebral column.
ribs
There are 12 pairs of ribs, or costae. They attach to the thoracic vertebrae on the dorsal surface of the body. The first seven pairs are called true ribs because they attach directly to the ster- num, or breastbone, on the front of the body. The next five pairs are called false ribs. The first three pairs of false ribs attach to the cartilage of the rib above. The last two pairs of false ribs are called floating ribs because they have no attachment on the front of the body.
sternum
The sternum, or breastbone, is the last bone of the axial skeleton. It consists of three parts: the manubrium (upper region), the gladiolus (body), and the xiphoid process (a small piece of carti- lage at the bottom). The two collarbones, or clav- icles, are attached to the manubrium by ligaments. The ribs are attached to the sternum with costal cartilages to form a "cage" that protects the heart and lungs.
clavicles and scapulas
The shoulder, or pectoral, girdle is made of two clavicles (collarbones) and two scapulas (shoulder bones). The scapulas provide for attachment of the upper arm bones.Sacrum (sacr/o)Sacroiliac jointIliac crest (ili/o)Anterior superior iliac spineCoccyx (coccyg/o)Acetabulum Obturator foramenSymphysis pubis (pub/o)
arm bones
Bones of each arm include one humerus (upper arm), one radius (lower arm on thumb side that rotates around the ulna to allow the hand to turn freely), one ulna (larger bone of lower arm with a projection called the olecranon process at its upper end, forming the elbow), eight carpals (wrist), five metacarpals (palm of the hand), and fourteen phalanges (three on each finger and two on the thumb).
pelvic gridle
The pelvic girdle is made of two os coxae (coxal, or hip, bones), which join with the sacrum on the dorsal part of the body (figure 7-19). On the ventral part of the body, the os coxae join together at a joint called the symphysis pubis. Each os coxae is made of three fused sections: the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis. The pelvic gir- dle contains two recessed areas, or sockets. These sockets, called acetabula, provide for the attach- ment of the smooth rounded head of the femur (upper leg bone). An opening between the ischium and pubis, called the obturator foramen, allows for the passage of nerves and blood vessels to and from the legs.
leg bones
each leg consists of one femur (thigh), one patella (kneecap), one tibia (the larger weight- bearing bone of the lower leg commonly called the shin bone), one fibula (the slender smaller bone of the lower leg that attaches to the proxi- mal end of the tibia), seven tarsals (ankle), five metatarsals (instep of foot), and fourteen pha- langes (two on the great toe and three on each of the other four toes). The heel is formed by the large tarsal bone called the calcaneous. The bones of the skeleton are shown in figure 7-20.
joints
are areas where two or more bones join together
ligaments
bone to bone
three main types of joints
Diarthrosis or synovial, Amphiarthrosis, Rheumatoid arthritis
Diarthrosis or synovial
freely movable; exam- ples include the ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip, or the hinge joints of the elbow and knee
Amphiarthrosis
slightly movable; examples include the attachment of the ribs to the tho- racic vertebrae and the symphysis pubis, or joint between the two pelvic bones freqently affects the hips and knees. Symptoms include joint pain, stiffness, aching, and limited range of motion. Although there is no cure, rest, applications of heat and cold, aspirin and anti- inflammatory medications, injection of steroids into the joints, and special exercises are used to relieve the symptoms.
Rheumatoid arthritis
is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the connective tissues and joints. It is three times more common in women than in men, and onset often occurs between the ages of 35 and 45. Pro- gressive attacks can cause scar tissue formation and atrophy of bone and muscle tissue, which result in permanent deformity and immobility (figure 7-21). Early treatment is important to reduce pain and limit damage to joints. Rest, pre- scribed exercise, anti-inflammatory medications such as aspirin, and careful use of steroids are the main forms of treatment. Surgery, or arthroplasty, to replace damaged joints, such as those in the hips and knees, is sometimes performed when severe joint damage has occurred.
organism
human organism
fracture
is a crack or break in a bonetypes of fractures:⦠Greenstick: bone is bent and splits, causing a crack or incomplete break; common in chil- dren⦠Simple or closed: complete break of the bone with no damage to the skin⦠Compound or open: bone breaks and ruptures through the skin; creates an increased chance of infection⦠Impacted: broken bone ends jam into each other⦠Comminuted: bone fragments or splinters into more than two pieces⦠Spiral: bone twists, resulting in one or more breaks; common in skiing and skating acci- dents⦠Depressed: a broken piece of skull bone moves inward; common with severe head injuries⦠Colles: breaking and dislocation of the distal radius that causes a characteristic bulge at the wrist; caused by falling on an outstretched hand
dislocation
is when a bone is forcibly displaced from a joint. It frequently occurs in shoulders, fingers, knees, and hips. After the dislocation is reduced (the bone is replaced in the joint), the dislocation is immobilized with a splint, a cast, or traction.
sprain
A sprain is when a twisting action tears the liga- ments at a joint. The wrists and ankles are com- mon sites for sprains.
vestibule
The area of the vulva located inside the labia minora
labia minora
The labia minora are the two smaller hairless folds of tis- sue that are located within the labia majora.
Osteomyelitis
Osteomyelitis is a bone inflammation usually caused by a pathogenic organism. The infectious organisms cause the formation of an abscess within the bone and an accumulation of pus in the medullary canal. Symptoms include pain at the site, swelling, chills, and fever. Antibiotics are used to treat the infection.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis, or increased porosity or softening of the bones, is a metabolic disorder caused by a hormone deficiency (especially estrogen in women), prolonged lack of calcium in the diet, and a sedentary lifestyle. The loss of calcium and phosphate from the bones causes the bones to become porous, brittle, and prone to fracture. Bone density tests lead to early detection and preventative treatment for osteoporosis. Treat- ment methods include increased intake of cal- cium and vitamin D, medications such as Fosamax and Citracel to increase bone mass, exercise, and/or estrogen replacement.
Ruptured Disk
A ruptured disk, also called a herniated or slipped disk, occurs when an intervertebral disk (pad of cartilage separating the vertebrae) ruptures or protrudes out of place and causes pressure on the spinal nerve. The most common site is at the lum- bar-sacral area, but a ruptured disk can occur any- where on the spinal column. Symptoms include severe pain, muscle spasm, impaired movement, and/or numbness. Pain, anti-inflammatory, and muscle relaxant medications may be used as ini- tial forms of treatment. Other treatments include rest, traction, physical therapy, massage therapy, chiropractic treatment, and/or heat or cold applications. A laminectomy, surgical removal of the protruding disk, may be necessary in severe cases that do not respond to conservative treat- ment. If pain persists, a spinal fusion may be per- formed to insert a screw/rod assembly into the spine to permanently immobilize the affected vertebrae.
abnormal curvatures of the spinal column
scoliosis, lordosis, kyphosis
muscles number
more than 600 muscles make up the muscular system
All muscles have certain proper- ties or characteristics
⦠Excitability: irritability, the ability to respond to a stimulus such as a nerve impulse⦠Contractibility: muscle fibers that are stim- ulated by nerves contract, or become short and thick, which causes movement⦠Extensibility: the ability to be stretched⦠Elasticity: allows the muscle to return to its original shape after it has contracted or stretched
three main types of muscles
cardiac, visceral, and skeletal muscles
cardiac muscles
forms the walls of the heart and contracts to circulate blood.
visceral muscles
r smooth, muscle is found in the internal organs of the body, such as those of the digestive and respiratory systems, and he blood vessels and eyes. Visceral muscle con- tracts to cause movement in these organs.
involuntary muscles
cardiac and visceral muscles are this and they function without conscious thought or control
skeletal muscle
is attached to bones and causes body movement.
voluntary muscles
skeletal muscle is this and its because a person has control over its action
skeletal muscles perform 4 importnat functions
⦠Attach to bones to provide voluntary move- ment⦠Produce heat and energy for the body⦠Help maintain posture by holding the bodyerect⦠Protect internal organs
tendons
bones to muscles
fascia
other muscles attach by fascia, a tough sheetlike membrane that covers and protects the tissue
origin
When a muscle attaches to a bone, the end that does not move is called the
insertion
the end that moves when the muscle contracts is called the
few examples of range of motions/ biomechanics movemnts
⦠Adduction: moving a body part toward the midline⦠Abduction: moving a body part away from the midline⦠Flexion: decreasing the angle between two bones, or bending a body part⦠Extension: increasing the angle between two bones, or straightening a body part⦠Rotation: turning a body part around its own axis; for example, turning the head from side to side⦠Circumduction: moving in a circle at a joint, or moving one end of a body part in a circle while the other end remains stationary, such as swinging an arm in a circle
contracture
lack of use of a muscle
muscle tone
the state of partial contraction
neuron
the basic structural unit of the nervous system, also called nerve cell
two main divisions of the nervous system
he central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
CNS central nervous system
central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
peripheral nervous system pos
consists of the nerves and has two divisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
somatic nervous system
the somatic nervous system carries messages between the CNS and the body.
autonomic nervous system
ontains the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which work together to control involuntary body functions.
brain has the following main sections:
cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, midbrain, pons, medulla obiongata
Cerebrum
the largest and highest section of the brain. The outer part is arranged in folds, called convolutions, and separated into lobes. The lobes include the frontal, parietal, tempo- ral, and occipital, named from the skull bones that surround them (figure 7-30). The cere-brum is responsible for reasoning, thought, memory, judgment, speech, sensation, sight, smell, hearing, and voluntary body move- ment.
Cerebellum
The section below the back of the cerebrum. It is responsible for muscle coordination, balance, posture, and muscle tone.
labia majora
labia majora are the two large folds of fatty tissue that are cov- ered with hair on their outer surfaces; they enclose and protect the vagina.
Vulva
vulva is the collective name for the struc- tures that form the external female genital are
Midbrain
he section located below the cerebrum at the top of the brainstem. It is responsible for conducting impulses between brain parts and for certain eye and auditory reflexes.
pons
the section located below the midbrain and in the brainstem. It is responsible for con- ducting messages to other parts of the brain; for certain reflex actions including chewing, tasting, and saliva production; and for assist- ing with respiration.
Medulla oblongata
the lowest part of the brainstem. It connects with the spinal cord and is responsible for regulating heartbeat, respiration, swallowing, coughing, and blood pressure
spinal cord
The spinal cord continues down from the medulla oblongata and ends at the first or second lumbar vertebrae (figure 7-31). It is sur- rounded and protected by the vertebrae. The spi- nal cord is responsible for many reflex actions and for carrying sensory (afferent) messages up to the brain and motor (efferent) messages from the brain to the nerves that go to the muscles and glands.
meninges
The meninges are three membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. Thedura mater is the thick, tough, outer layer. The middle layer is delicate and weblike, and is called the arachnoid membrane. It is loosely attached to the other meninges to allow space for fluid to flow between the layers. The innermost layer, the pia mater, is closely attached to the brain and spi- nal cord, and contains blood vessels that nourish the nerve tissue.
The brain has four ventricles
ollow spaces that connect with each other and with the space under the arachnoid membrane (the subarach- noid space). The ventricles are filled with a clear, colorless fluid called cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid circulates continually between the ventri- cles and through the subarachnoid space. It serves as a shock absorber to protect the brain and spinal cord. It also carries nutrients to some parts of the brain and spinal cord and helps remove metabolic products and wastes. The fluid is produced in the ventricles of the brain by the special structures called choroid plexuses. After circulating, it is absorbed into the blood vessels of the dura mater and returned to the blood- stream through special structures called arach- noid villi.
Somatic Nervous System
The somatic nervous system consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their branches, and 31 pairs of spinal nerves and their branches. Some of thecranial nerves are responsible for special senses such as sight, hearing, taste, and smell. Others receive general sensations such as touch, pres- sure, pain, and temperature, and send out impulses for involuntary and voluntary muscle control. The spinal nerves carry messages to and from the spinal cord and are mixed nerves, both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent). There are 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 pair of coccygeal spinal nerves. Each nerve goes directly to a particular part of the body or net- works with other spinal nerves to form a plexus that supplies sensation to a larger segment of the body.
Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system is an important part of the peripheral nervous system. It helps maintain a balance in the involuntary functions of the body and allows the body to react in times of emergency. There are two divisions to the auto- nomic nervous system: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. These two systems usually work together to maintain a bal- anced state, or homeostasis, in the body and to control involuntary body functions at proper rates. In times of emergency, the sympathetic nervous system prepares the body to act by increasing heart rate, respiration, and blood pres- sure, and slowing activity in the digestive tract. This is known as the fight or flight response. After the emergency, the parasympathetic nervous system counteracts the actions of the sympa- thetic system by slowing heart rate, decreasing respiration, lowering blood pressure, and increas- ing activity in the digestive tract.
Diencephalon
the section located between the cerebrum and midbrain. It contains two structures: the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a relay center and directs sensory impulses to the cerebrum. It also allows conscious recognition of pain and temperature. The hypothalamus regulates and controls the autonomic nervous system, temperature, appetite, water balance, sleep, and blood vessel constriction and dilation. The hypothalamus is also involved in emo- tions such as anger, fear, pleasure, pain, and affection.
nerves
are a combination of many nerve fibers located outside the brain and spinal cord. Afferent, or sensory, nerves carry messages from all parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord. Efferent, or motor, nerves carry messages from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. Associative, or internuncial, nerves carry both sensory and motor messages.
atrophy
when muscles are not used for a long time they can string in size and lose strength
eye
The eye is the organ that controls the special sense of sight. It receives light rays and transmits impulses from the rays to the optic nerve, which carries the impulses to the brain, where they are interpreted as vision, or sight. The eye (figure 7-34A) is well protected. It is partially enclosed in a bony socket of the skull. Eyelids and eyelashes help keep out dirt and pathogens. Lacrimal glands in the eye produce tears, which constantly moisten and cleanse the eye. The tears flow across the eye and drain through the nasolacrimal duct into the nasal cav- ity. A mucous membrane, called the conjunc- tiva, lines the eyelids and covers the front of the eye to provide additional protection and lubrica- tion.
three main layers to the eye
he outermost layer is the tough connec- tive tissue called the sclera. It is frequently referred to as the "white" of the eye. The sclera maintains the shape of the eye. Extrinsic muscles, responsible for moving the eye within the socket, are attached to the outside of the sclera. The cornea is a circular, transparent part of the front of the sclera. It allows light rays to enter the eye. The middle layer of the eye, the choroid coat, is interlaced with many blood vessels that nourish the eyes. The innermost layer of the eye is the retina. It is made of many layers of nerve cells, which transmit the light impulses to the optic nerve. Two such special cells are cones and rods. Cones are sensitive to color and are used mainly for vision when it is light. Most of the cones are located in a depression located on the back sur- face of the retina called the fovea centralis; this is the area of sharpest vision. Rods are used for vision when it is dark or dim.
iris
is the colored portion of the eye. It is located behind the cornea on the front of the choroid coat. The opening in the center of the iris is called the pupil. The iris contains two muscles, which control the size of the pupil and regulate the amount of light entering the eye.
lens
The lens is a circular structure located behind the pupil and suspended in position by ligaments. It refracts (bends) light rays so the rays focus on the retina. The aqueous humor is a clear, watery fluid that fills the space between the cornea and iris. It helps maintain the forward curvature of the eyeball and refracts light rays. The vitreous humor is the jellylike substance that fills the area behind the lens. It helps main- tain the shape of the eyeball and also refracts light rays. A series of muscles located in the eye pro- vide for eye movement. when light rays enter the eye, they pass through a series of parts that refract the rays so that the rays focus on the retina. These parts are the cornea, the aqueous humor, the pupil, the lens, and the vitreous humor. In the retina, the light rays (image) are picked up by the rods and cones, changed into nerve impulses, and transmitted by the optic nerve to the occipital lobe of the cere- brum, where sight is interpreted. If the rays are not refracted correctly by the various parts, vision can be distorted or blurred
ear
the ear is the organ that controls the special senses of hearing and balance. It transmits impulses from sound waves to the auditory nerve (vestibulocochlear), which carries the impulses to the brain for interpretation as hearing.
three sections of the ear
outer, inner, and middle ear
outer ear
The outer ear contains the visible part of the ear, called the pinna, or auricle. The pinna is elastic cartilage covered by skin. It leads to a canal, or tube, called the external auditory meatus, or auditory canal. Special glands in this canal produce cerumen, a wax that protects the ear. Sound waves travel through the auditory canal until they reach the eardrum, or tympanic membrane. The tympanic membrane separates the outer ear from the middle ear. It vibrates when sound waves hit it and transmits the sound waves to the middle ear.
middle ear
The middle ear is a small space, or cavity, in the temporal bone. It contains three small bones (ossicles): the malleus, the incus, and the sta- pes. The bones are connected and transmit sound waves from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear. The middle ear is connected to the pharynx, or throat, by a tube called the eustachian tube. This tube allows air to enter the middle ear and helps equalize air pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane.
inner ear
The inner ear is the most complex portion of the ear. It is separated from the middle ear by a membrane called the oval window. The first sec- tion is the vestibule, which acts as the entrance to the two other parts of the inner ear. The cochlea, shaped like a snail's shell, contains del- icate, hairlike cells, which compose the organ of Corti, a receptor of sound waves. The organ of Corti transmits the impulses from sound waves to the auditory nerve. This nerve carries the impulses to the temporal lobe of the cerebrum, where they are interpreted as hearing. Semicir- cular canals are also located in the inner ear. These canals contain a liquid and delicate, hair- like cells that bend when the liquid moves with head and body movements. Impulses sent from the semicircular canals to the cerebellum of the brain help to maintain our sense of balance and equilibrium.
the tongue and sense of tase
The tongue is a mass of muscle tissue with pro- jections called papillae (figure 7-38). The papillae contain taste buds that are stimulated by the fla- vors of foods moistened by saliva. There are four main tastes: sweet tastes and salty tastes at the tip of the tongue; sour tastes at the sides of the tongue; and bitter tastes at the back of the tongue. Taste is influenced by the sense of smell.
the nose and sense of smell
The nose is the organ of smell (figure 7-39). The sense of smell is made possible by olfactory receptors, which are located in the upper part of the nasal cavity. Impulses from these receptors are carried to the brain by the olfactory nerve. The human nose can detect more than 6,000 dif- ferent smells. The sense of smell is more sensitive than taste, but is closely related to the sense of taste. This is clearly illustrated by the fact that food does not taste as good when you have a head cold and your sense of smell is impaired.
the skin and general senses
General sense receptors for pressure, heat, cold, touch, and pain are located throughout the body in the skin and connective tissue. Each receptor perceives only one type of sense. For example, the skin contains special receptors for heat and different receptors for cold. Messages from these receptors allow the human body to respond to its environment and help it react to conditions that can cause injury.
heart
The heart is a muscular, hollow organ often called the "pump" of the body (figure 7-40). Even though it weighs less than one pound and is approxi- mately the size of a closed fist, it contracts about 100,000 times each day to pump the equivalent of 2,000 gallons of blood through the body. The heart is located in the mediastinal cavity, between the lungs, behind the sternum, and above the diaphragm.
three layers of tissue form the heart
endocardium, myocardium, pericardium
endocardium
The endocardium is a smooth layer of cells that lines the inside of the heart and is continuous with the inside of blood vessels. It allows for the smooth flow of blood.
myocardium
he thickest layer is the myocardium, the muscular middle layer.
pericardium
the pericardium is a double-layered membrane, or sac, that covers the outside of the heart. A lubri- cating fluid, pericardial fluid, fills the space between the two layers to prevent friction and damage to the membranes as the heart beats or contracts.
septum
The septum is a muscular wall that separates the heart into a right side and a left side. It pre- vents blood from moving between the right and left sides of the heart. The upper part of the septum is called the interatrial septum, and the lower part is called the interventricular septum.
the heart is divided into 4 parts or chambers
The two upper chambers are called atria, and the two lower chambers are called ventricles. The right atrium receives blood as it returns from the body cells. The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium and pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery, which carries the blood to the lungs for oxygen. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs. The left ventricle receives blood from the left atrium and pumps the blood into the aorta for transport to the body cells.
one-way valves in the chambers of the heart
One-way valves in the chambers of the heart keep the blood flowing in the right direction. The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and the right ventricle. It closes when the right ventricle contracts, allowing blood to flow to the lungs and preventing blood from flowing back into the right atrium. The pulmonary valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery, a blood vessel that carries blood to the lungs. It closes when the right ventricle has finished contracting, preventing blood from flow- ing back into the right ventricle. The mitral valve is located between the left atrium and left ventri- cle. It closes when the left ventricle is contracting, allowing blood to flow into the aorta (for transport to the body) and preventing blood from flowing back into the left atrium. The aortic valve is located between the left ventricle and the aorta, the largest artery in the body. It closes when the left ventricle is finished contracting, allowing blood to flow into the aorta and preventing blood from flowing back into the left ventricle.
cardiac, heartbeat, cycle
Although they are separated by the septum, the right and left sides of the heart work together in a cyclic manner. The cycle consists of a brief periodof rest, called diastole, followed by a period of ventricular contraction, called systole (figure 7-41). At the start of the cycle, the atria contract and push blood into the ventricles. The atria then relax, and blood returning from the body enters the right atrium, while blood returning from the lungs enters the left atrium. As the atria are filling, systole begins, and the ventricles contract. The right ventricle pushes blood into the pulmonary artery, sending the blood to the lungs for oxygen. The left ventricle pushes blood into the aorta, sending the blood to all other parts of the body. The blood in the right side of the heart is low in oxygen and high in car- bon dioxide. When this blood arrives in the lungs, the carbon dioxide is released into the lungs, and oxygen is taken into the blood. This oxygenated blood is then carried to the left side of the heart by the pulmonary veins. This blood in the left side of the heart, high in oxygen and low in carbon diox- ide, is ready for transport to the body cells.
Arrhythmias
are abnormal heart rhythms
arteries
Arteries (figure 7-44) carry blood away from the heart. The aorta is the largest artery in the body; it receives the blood from the left ventricle of the heart. The aorta branches into all of the other arteries that supply blood to the body. The first branch of the aorta is the coronary artery, which divides into a right and left coronary artery to carry blood to the myocardium of the heart.
capillaries
Capillaries connect arterioles with venules, the smallest veins. Capillaries are located in close proximity to almost every cell in the body. They have thin walls that contain only one layer of cells. These thin walls allow oxygen and nutrients to pass through to the cells and allow carbon dioxide and metabolic products from the cells to enter the capillaries.
veins
Veins (figure 7-45) are blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart. Venules, the small- est branches of veins, connect with the capillar- ies. The venules join together and, becoming larger, form veins. The veins continue to join together until they form the two largest veins: the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. The superior vena cava brings the blood from the upper part of the body, and the inferior vena cava brings the blood from the lower part of the body. Both vena cavae drain into the right atrium of the heart. Veins are thinner and have less muscle tis- sue than do arteries. Most veins contain valves, which keep the blood from flowing in a backward direction (figure 7-46).
blood composition
The blood that flows through the circulatory sys- tem is often called a tissue because it contains many kinds of cells. There are approximately 4-6 quarts of blood in the average adult. This blood circulates continuously throughout the body. It transports oxygen from the lungs to the body cells, carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs, nutrients from the digestive tract to the body cells, metabolic and waste products from the body cells to the organs of excretion, heat produced by various body parts, and hormones produced by endocrine glands to the body organs.
plasma
lood is made of the fluid called plasma and formed or solid elements called blood cells (figure 7-47). Plasma is approximately 90 percent water, with many dissolved, or suspended, substances. Among these substances are blood proteins such as fibrinogen and prothrombin (both necessary for clotting); nutrients such as vitamins, carbohy- drates, and proteins; mineral salts or electrolytes such as potassium, calcium, and sodium; gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen; metabolic and waste products; hormones; and enzymes.
blood cells 3 types
eryth- rocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes.
erythrocytes
The erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are produced in the red bone marrow at a rate of about one million per minute. They live approxi- mately 120 days before being broken down by the liver and spleen. There are 4.5-5.5 million eryth- rocytes per cubic millimeter (approximately one drop) of blood, or approximately 25 trillion in the body. The mature form circulating in the blood lacks a nucleus and is shaped like a disk with a thinner central area. The erythrocytes contain hemoglobin, a complex protein composed of the protein molecule called globin and the iron compound called heme. Hemoglobin carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. When carrying oxy- gen, hemoglobin gives blood its characteristic red color. When blood contains a lot of oxygen, it is bright red; when blood contains less oxygen and more carbon dioxide, it is a much darker red with a bluish cast.
Leukocytes
or white blood cells, are not as numerous as are erythrocytes. They are formed in the bone marrow and lymph tissue and usually live about 3-9 days. A normal count is 5,000-9,000 leukocytes per cubic millimeter of blood. Leuko- cytes can pass through capillary walls and enter body tissue. Their main function is to fight infec- tion. Some do this by engulfing, ingesting, and destroying pathogens, or germs, by a process alled phagocytosis. The five types of leukocytes and their functions include:⦠Neutrophils: phagocytize bacteria by secreting an enzyme called lysozyme⦠Eosinophils: remove toxins and defend the body from allergic reactions by producing antihistamines⦠Basophils: participate in the body's inflamma- tory response; produce histamine, a vasodila- tor, and heparin, an anticoagulant⦠Monocytes: phagocytize bacteria and foreign materials⦠Lymphocytes: provide immunity for the body by developing antibodies; protect against the formation of cancer cells
Thrombocytes
Thrombocytes, also called platelets, are usually described as fragments or pieces of cells because they lack nuclei and vary in shape and size. They are formed in the bone marrow and live for about 5-9 days. A normal thrombocyte count is 250,000-400,000 per cubic millimeter of blood. Thrombocytes are important for the clot- ting process, which stops bleeding. When a blood vessel is cut, the thrombocytes collect at the site to form a sticky plug. They secrete a chemical, serotonin, which causes the blood vessel to spasm and narrow, decreasing the flow of blood. At the same time, the thrombocytes release an enzyme, thromboplastin, which acts with calcium and other substances in the plasma to form throm- bin. Thrombin acts on the blood protein fibrino- gen to form fibrin, a gel-like net of fine fibers that traps erythrocytes, platelets, and plasma to form a clot. This is an effective method for controlling bleeding in smaller blood vessels. If a large blood vessel is cut, the rapid flow of blood can interfere with the formation of fibrin. In these instances, a doctor may have to insert sutures (stitches) to close the opening and control the bleeding.
lymph
Lymph is a thin, watery fluid composed of intercellular, or interstitial, fluid, which forms when plasma diffuses into tissue spaces. It is composed of water, digested nutrients, salts, hor- mones, oxygen, carbon dioxide, lymphocytes, and metabolic wastes such as urea. When this fluid enters the lymphatic system, it is known as lymph.
lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic vessels are located throughout the body in almost all of the tissues that have blood vessels. Small, open-ended lymph vessels act like drainpipes and are called lymphatic capillar- ies. The lymphatic capillaries pick up lymph at tissues throughout the body. The capillaries then join together to form larger lymphatic vessels, which pass through the lymph nodes. Contractions of skeletal muscles against the lymph vessels cause the lymph to flow through the vessels. Lym- phatic vessels also have valves that keep the lymph flowing in only one direction. In the area of the small intestine, specialized lymphatic capillaries, called lacteals, pick up digested fats or lipids. When lymph is mixed with the lipids it is called chyle. The lacteals transport the chyle to the blood- stream through the thoracic duct.
lymph nodes
Lymph nodes, popularly called "glands," are located all over the body, usually in groups or clusters. They are small, round, or oval masses ranging in size from that of a pinhead to that of an almond. Lymph vessels bring lymph to the nodes. The nodes filter the lymph and remove impurities such as carbon, cancer cells, pathogens (disease- producing organisms), and dead blood cells. In addition, the lymphatic tissue in the nodes pro- duces lymphocytes (a type of leukocyte, or white blood cell) and antibodies (substances used to combat infection). The purified lymph, with lym- phocytes and antibodies added, leaves the lymph node by a single lymphatic vessel.
right lymphatic duct
is the short tube that receives all of the purified lymph from the right side of the head and neck, the right chest, and the right arm. It empties into the right subclavian vein, returning the purified lymph to the blood.
thoracic duct
a much larger tube, drains the lymph from the rest of the body. It empties into the left subclavian vein. At the start of the thoracic duct, an enlarged pouchlike structure called the cisterna chyli serves as a storage area for purified lymph before this lymph returns to the bloodstream. The cisterna chyli also receives chyle from the intestinal lacteals.
tonsils
are masses of the lymphatic tissue that filter interstitial fluid
three main pairs of tonsils
⦠Palatine tonsils: located on each side of the soft palate⦠Pharyngeal tonsils: (also called adenoids) located in the nasopharynx (the upper part of the throat)⦠Lingual tonsils: located on the back of the tongue
spleen
The spleen is an organ located beneath the left side of the diaphragm and in back of the upper part of the stomach. It produces leukocytes and antibodies, destroys old erythrocytes (red blood cells), stores erythrocytes to release into the bloodstream if excessive bleeding occurs, destroys thrombocytes (platelets), and filters metabolites and wastes from body tissues.
thymus
The thymus is a mass of lymph tissue located in the center of the upper chest. It atrophies (wastes away) after puberty and is replaced by fat and connective tissue. During early life, it pro- duces antibodies and manufactures lymphocytes to fight infection. Its function is taken over by the lymph nodes.
how many minutes of supply of oxygen does the body have?
because the body has only a 4-6-minute supply of oxygen, the respiratory system must work continuously to prevent death.
parts of the respiratory system
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, alveoli, and lungs
nose
The nose has two openings, called nostrils or nares, through which air enters. A wall of carti- lage, called the nasal septum, divides the nose into two hollow spaces, called nasal cavities. The nasal cavities are lined with a mucous mem- brane and have a rich blood supply. As air enters the cavities, it is warmed, filtered, and moistened. Mucus, produced by the mucous membranes, moistens the air and helps trap pathogens and dirt. Tiny, hairlike structures, called cilia, filter inhaled air to trap dust and other particles. The cilia then help move the mucous layer that lines the airways to push trapped particles toward the esophagus, where they can be swallowed. The olfactory receptors for the sense of smell are also located in the nose. The nasolacrimal ducts drain tears from the eye into the nose to provide addi- tional moisture for the air.
sinuses
Sinuses are cavities in the skull that sur- round the nasal area. They are connected to the nasal cavity by short ducts. The sinuses are lined with a mucous membrane that warms and moist- ens air. The sinuses also provide resonance for the voice.
pharynx
The pharynx, or throat, lies directly behind the nasal cavities. As air leaves the nose, it enters the pharynx. The pharynx is divided into threesections. The nasopharynx is the upper portion, located behind the nasal cavities. The pharyngeal tonsils, or adenoids (lymphatic tissue), and the eustachian tube (tube to middle ear) openings are located in this section. The oropharynx is the middle section, located behind the oral cavity (mouth). This section receives both air from the nasopharynx and food and air from the mouth. The laryngopharynx is the bottom sec- tion of the pharynx. The esophagus, which car- ries food to the stomach, and the trachea, which carries air to and from the lungs, branch off the laryngopharynx.
larynx
The larynx, or voice box, lies between the pharynx and trachea. It has nine layers of carti- lage. The largest, the thyroid cartilage, is com- monly called the Adam's apple. The larynx Anatomy and Physiology 199 contains two folds, called vocal cords. The open- ing between the vocal cords is called the glottis. As air leaves the lungs, the vocal cords vibrate and produce sound. The tongue and lips act on the sound to produce speech. The epiglottis, a special leaflike piece of cartilage, closes the opening into the larynx during swallowing. This prevents food and liquids from entering the respi- ratory tract.
trachea
The trachea (windpipe) is a tube extending from the larynx to the center of the chest. It car- ries air between the pharynx and the bronchi. A series of C-shaped cartilages (which are open on the dorsal, or back, surfaces) help keep the tra- chea open.
trachea divides into
The trachea divides into two bronchi near the center of the chest, a right bronchus and a left bronchus. The right bronchus is shorter, wider, and extends more vertically than the left bron- chus. Each bronchus enters a lung and carries air from the trachea to the lung. In the lungs, the bronchi continue to divide into smaller and smaller bronchi until, finally, they divide into the smallest branches, called bronchioles. The smallest bronchioles, called terminal bronchi- oles, end in air sacs, called alveoli.
alveoil
The alveoli resemble a bunch of grapes. An adult lung contains approximately 500 million alveoli. They are made of one layer of squamous epithelial tissue and contain a rich network of blood capillaries. The capillaries allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to be exchanged between the blood and the lungs. The inner surfaces of the alveoli are covered with a lipid (fatty) substance, called surfactant, to help prevent them from col- lapsing.
pleura
Each lung is enclosed in a membrane, or sac, called the pleura. The pleura consists of two layers of serous membrane: a visceral pleura attached to the surface of the lung, and a parietal pleura attached to the chest wall. A pleural space, located between the two layers, is filled with a thin layer of pleural fluid that lubricates the membranes and prevents fric- tion as the lungs expand during breathing. Both of the lungs, along with the heart and major blood vessels, are located in the thoracic cavity.
ventilation
is the process of breathing which includes two phases: inspiration and expiration
Inspiration
Inspiration (inhalation) is the process of breath- ing in air. The diaphragm (dome-shaped muscle between the thoracic and abdominal cavities) and the intercostal muscles (between the ribs) contract and enlarge the thoracic cavity to create a vacuum. Air rushes in through the airways to the alveoli, where the exchange of gases takes place.
expiration
When the diaphragm and intercostal mus- cles relax, the process of expiration (exhalation) occurs. Air is forced out of the lungs and air pas- sages. This process of inspiration and expiration is known as respiration. The process of respira- tion is controlled by the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata of the brain. An increased amount of carbon dioxide in the blood, or a decreased amount of oxygen as seen in certain diseases (asthma, congestive heart failure, or emphysema), causes the center to increase the rate of respiration. Although this process is usu- ally involuntary, a person can control the rate of breathing by breathing faster or slower.
there are two main stages of respiration
external and internal respiration
external respiration
External respiration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and blood- stream. Oxygen, breathed in through the respira- tory system, enters the alveoli. Because the oxygen concentration in the alveoli is higher than the oxygen concentration in the blood capillar- ies, oxygen leaves the alveoli and enters the capil- laries and the bloodstream. Carbon dioxide, a metabolic waste product, is carried in the blood- stream. Because the carbon dioxide concentra- tion in the capillaries is higher than the carbon dioxide concentration in the alveoli, carbon diox- ide leaves the capillaries and enters the alveoli, where it is expelled from the body during exhala- tion.
internal respiration
Internal respiration is the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the tissue cells and the bloodstream. Oxygen is carried to the tissue cells by the blood. Because the oxygen oncentration is higher in the blood than in the tissue cells, oxygen leaves the blood capillaries and enters the tissue cells. The cells then use the oxygen and nutrients to produce energy, water, and carbon dioxide. This process is called cellu- lar respiration. Because the carbon dioxide concentration is higher in tissue cells than in the bloodstream, carbon dioxide leaves the cells and enters the bloodstream to be transported back to the lungs, where external respiration takes place.
gastrointestinal system
also known as digestive system
alimentary canal
The alimentary canal is a long, muscular tube that begins at the mouth and includes the mouth (oral cavity), pharynx, esophagus, stom- ach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The accessory organs are the salivary glands, tongue, teeth, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
mouth
he mouth, also called the buccal cavity (figure 7-57) receives food as it enters the body. While food is in the mouth, it is tasted, broken down physically by the teeth, lubricated and partially digested by saliva, and swallowed. The teeth are special structures in the mouth that physically break down food by chewing and grinding. This process is called mastication. The tongue is a muscular organ that contains special receptors called taste buds. The taste buds allow a person to taste sweet, salty, sour, and bitter sensations. The ongue also aids in chewing and swallowing food.
hard plate
The hard palate is the bony structure that forms the roof of the mouth and separates the mouth from the nasal cavities.
soft plate
behind the hard palate is the soft palate, which separates the mouth from the nasopharynx. The uvula, a cone-shaped muscular structure, hangs from the middle of the soft palate. It prevents food from entering the nasopharynx during swallowing.
three pairs of salivary glands
the parotid, sublingual, and submandibularproduce a liquid called saliva. Saliva lubricates the mouth during speech and chewing and moistens food so that it can be swal- lowed easily. Saliva also contains an enzyme (a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction) called salivary amylase, formerly known as ptya- lin. Salivary amylase begins the chemical break-down of carbohydrates, or starches, into sugars that can be taken into the body.
pharynx
throathe phar- ynx is a tube that carries both air and food. It carries the air to the trachea, or windpipe, and food to the esophagus. When a bolus is being swallowed, muscle action causes the epiglottis to close over the larynx, preventing the bolus from entering the respiratory tract and causing it to enter the esophagus.
esophagus
The esophagus is the muscular tube dorsal to (behind) the trachea. This tube receives the bolus from the pharynx and carries the bolus to the stomach. The esophagus, like the remaining part of the alimentary canal, relies on a rhythmic, mentary canal. It is approximately 20 feet in length and 1 inch in diameter, and is divided into three sections: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.
duodenum
The duodenum is the first 9-10 inches of the small intestine. Bile (from the gallbladder and liver) and pancreatic juice (from the pan- creas) enter this section through ducts, or tubes.
jejunum
The jejunum is approximately 8 feet in length and forms the middle section of the small intes- tine.
ileum
rms the middle section of the small intes- tine. The ileum is the final 12 feet of the small intestine, and it connects with the large intestine at the cecum. The circular muscle called the ileo- cecal valve separates the ileum and cecum and prevents food from returning to the ileum.
villi
gested, it is absorbed into the blood- stream. The walls of the small intestine are lined with fingerlike projections called villi (figure 7-58). The villi contain blood capillaries and lac- teals. The blood capillaries absorb the digested nutrients and carry them to the liver, where they are either stored or released into general circula- tion for use by the body cells. The lacteals absorb most of the digested fats and carry them to the thoracic duct in the lymphatic system, which releases them into the circulatory system. When food has completed its passage through the small intestine, only wastes, indigestible materials, and excess water remain.
large intestine
The large intestine is the final section of the alimentary canal. It is approximately 5 feet in length and 2 inches in diameter. Functions include absorption of water and any remaining nutrients; storage of indigestible materials before they are eliminated from the body; synthesis (for- mation) and absorption of some B-complex vita- mins and vitamin K by bacteria present in the intestine; and transportation of waste products out of the alimentary canal. The large intestine is divided into a series of connected sections. The cecum is the first section and is connected to the ileum of the small intestine.
vermiform appendix
a small projection in large intestine
colon
The next section, the colon, has several divi- sions. The ascending colon continues up on the right side of the body from the cecum to the lower part of the liver. The transverse colon extends across the abdomen, below the liver and stomach and above the small intestine. The descending colon extends down the left side of the body. It connects with the sigmoid colon, an S-shaped section that joins with the rectum.
rectum
The rectum is the final 6-8 inches of the large intestine and is a storage area for indigestibles and wastes. It has a narrow canal, called the anal canal, which opens at a hole, called the anus. Fecal material, or stool, the final waste product of the digestive process, is expelled through this opening.
liver
The liver (figure 7-59), is the largest gland in the body and is an accessory organ to the digestive system. It is located under the diaphragm and in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen. The liver secretes bile, which is used to emulsify fats in the digestive tract. Bile also makes fats water soluble, which is necessary for absorption. The liver stores sugar in the form of glycogen. The gly- cogen is converted to glucose and released into the bloodstream when additional blood sugar is needed. The liver also stores iron and certain vitamins. It produces heparin, which prevents clotting of the blood; blood proteins such as fibrinogen and prothrombin, which aid in cloting of the blood; and cholesterol. Finally, the liver detoxifies (renders less harmful) substances such as alcohol and pesticides, and destroys bac- teria that have been taken into the blood from the intestine.
gallbladder
The gallbladder is a small, muscular sac located under the liver and attached to it by con- nective tissue. It stores and concentrates bile, which it receives from the liver. When the bile is needed to emulsify fats in the digestive tract, the gallbladder contracts and pushes the bile through the cystic duct into the common bile duct, which drains into the duodenum.
pancreas
The pancreas is a glandular organ located behind the stomach. It produces pancreatic juices, which contain enzymes to digest food. These juices enter the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. The enzymes in the juices include pancreatic amylase or amylopsin (to break down sugars), trypsin and chymotrypsin (to break down proteins), and lipase or steapsin (to act on fats). The pancreas also produces insu- lin, which is secreted into the bloodstream. Insu- lin regulates the metabolism, or burning, of carbohydrates to convert glucose (blood sugar) to energy.
excretory system
also known as the urinary system
parts of the urinary system
the parts of the urinary system are two kidneys, two ureters, one bladder, and one urethra (figure 7-61).
kidneys
The kidneys (figure 7-62) are two bean- shaped organs located on either side of the verte- bral column, behind the upper part of the abdominal cavity, and separated from this cavity by the peritoneum. Their location is often described as retroperitoneal. The kidneys are protected by the ribs and a heavy cushion of fat. Connective tissue helps hold the kidneys in posi- tion. Each kidney is enclosed in a mass of fatty tissue, called an adipose capsule, and covered externally by a tough, fibrous tissue, called the renal fascia, or fibrous capsule.
each kidney is divided into 2 main sections
cortex and the medulla
liver
The liver (figure 7-59), is the largest gland in the body and is an accessory organ to the digestive system. It is located under the diaphragm and in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen. The liver secretes bile, which is used to emulsify fats in the digestive tract. Bile also makes fats water soluble, which is necessary for absorption. The liver stores sugar in the form of glycogen. The gly- cogen is converted to glucose and released into the bloodstream when additional blood sugar is needed. The liver also stores iron and certain vitamins. It produces heparin, which prevents clotting of the blood; blood proteins such as fibrinogen and prothrombin, which aid in cloting of the blood; and cholesterol. Finally, the liver detoxifies (renders less harmful) substances such as alcohol and pesticides, and destroys bac- teria that have been taken into the blood from the intestine.
gallbladder
The gallbladder is a small, muscular sac located under the liver and attached to it by con- nective tissue. It stores and concentrates bile, which it receives from the liver. When the bile is needed to emulsify fats in the digestive tract, the gallbladder contracts and pushes the bile through the cystic duct into the common bile duct, which drains into the duodenum.